Detailed solution Paragraph § 24 on social studies for students of grade 11, authors L.N. Bogolyubov, N.I. Gorodetskaya, L.F. Ivanova 2014
Question 1. Does the plurality of political parties in a country serve as a criterion for its democracy? Is it always possible to determine its ideological and political orientation by the name of a party? How to become a member of a political party?
How democratic a country (society, state) is can be assessed by the following criteria:
Has the electoral system been reduced to a formal majority, without taking into account the rights of the individual and the minority;
Is the principle of equality observed, are the conditions created that allow the use of these opportunities regardless of social status, education, health of citizens;
Are all guaranteed civil rights not only to the majority, but also to individual citizens and minorities, including those in opposition to the government;
Are there equal rights for related minorities? common language, ethnic character, religion, culture, political views;
What is the position of the least prosperous strata of society;
What are the possibilities of direct participation of a citizen in making decisions concerning them;
Is freedom of speech, information, opinion, association really ensured;
Whether the authorities are acting in law, and not bureaucrats;
How much the people trust the authorities;
Is the privacy of citizens guaranteed;
Are the state and political systems capable of correcting mistakes?
It is not always possible to determine its ideological and political orientation by the name of a party; some parties have abstract names.
To become a member you must:
Get acquainted with the Charter and Program of the Party;
Have an experience of staying in the Party's supporters for at least 6 months;
Fill out an application for admission to the Party with your own hand and give written consent to the processing of personal data;
Pass an interview at the local (primary) branch of the Party at the place of residence;
Submit an application to the local (primary) branch of the Party at the place of residence.
Questions and tasks to the document
From the Federal Law "On Political Parties" (June 2001).
Article 8. Basic principles of activity of political parties.
1. The activities of political parties are based on the principles of voluntariness, equality, self-government, legality and transparency. Political parties are free to determine their internal structure, goals, forms and methods of activity, with the exception of the restrictions established by this Federal Law.
2. The activities of political parties must not violate human and civil rights and freedoms guaranteed by the Constitution Russian Federation.
3. Political parties act publicly, information about their constituent and program documents is publicly available.
4. Political parties must create equal opportunities for men and women, citizens of the Russian Federation of different nationalities who are members of a political party, to be represented in the governing bodies of a political party, in lists of candidates for deputies and for other elective positions in government bodies and local self-government bodies.
Question 1. How do you understand each of the principles named in paragraph 1 of Article 8 of the document: voluntariness, equality, self-government, legality, publicity?
The principle of voluntary elections is the principle of electoral law, which means that participation (or non-participation) in elections, voting for or against a particular candidate is exclusively the right of the voter. This principle also means that no one can (should not) exert influence on a citizen of the Russian Federation in order to force him to participate or not to participate in elections, as well as to his free expression of will.
Equality before the law, equality is the most important principle of democracy and classical liberalism, according to which all citizens are equal before the law, regardless of their race, nationality, gender, sexual orientation, place of residence, position in society, religious and political beliefs.
Self-management is a state in which the subject and the object of control coincide, such a nature of the processes of an object, which is a conditionally closed system, in which there is no direct control over them - goal-setting is carried out by the object itself in accordance with its properties, which can be programmed in a certain way when it is created.
Legality is a political and legal regime or the principle of the real operation of law in a state, in which state bodies, officials and citizens strictly observe legal norms and, first of all, laws.
Glasnost is a policy of maximum openness in the activities of state institutions and freedom of information. In modern usage - the inadmissibility of hushing up local economic problems, a significant weakening of censorship and the removal of numerous information barriers.
Question 2. What is the significance of publicity in the activities of political parties? Where and how can any citizen get information about the activities of the parties?
Political parties act publicly, information about their constituent and program documents is publicly available.
Political parties should create equal opportunities for men and women, citizens of the Russian Federation of different nationalities who are members of a political party, to be represented in the governing bodies of a political party, on lists of candidates for deputies and for other elective positions in government bodies and local self-government bodies.
Any citizen can get information from the media.
Question 3. Explain how the norms established by this article are related to the participation of political parties in elections.
These norms establish equal rights for all parties in elections to government bodies.
Question 4. Give examples of the activities of a party in the elections.
The party disseminates information about its program on television, in newspapers, so that as many people as possible become interested in it.
QUESTIONS FOR SELF-TEST
Question 1. What are the similarities and differences between political parties and movements? What are the foundations of the typology of political parties? What is the essence of each of these types of parties?
Currently, there are many definitions of a political party. Considering the essence of the party from the standpoint of different scientific approaches, scientists identify common features characteristic of it. These include:
1) Sustainable organization. A party is a relatively long-term voluntary association of people. Internal party relations are built on the basis of subordination general rules(norms), usually enshrined in the party charter. The charter determines the conditions for joining the party (for example, enshrines the principle of voluntariness), the structure of party organizations, the procedure for electing governing bodies, the rights and obligations of party members.
2) Ideological and political orientation. The party unites people who adhere to certain ideological and political views and have similar interests. The ideological priorities of the party are fixed, first of all, in its program, where the party goals and the main ways of their implementation are determined.
3) Striving to conquer and exercise state power. The key task of modern parties is to represent at the state level the interests of those social groups that they express. It is for this that parties and candidates from parties compete in elections to representative bodies of state power and elections of officials. Social interests are embodied in the election programs of parties (policy options). The voter essentially chooses between them. Let us emphasize that the claim to state power, participation in it is the main feature of a political party that distinguishes it from other non-governmental organizations.
A political party is a voluntary association of people of a certain ideological and political orientation, striving to conquer state power and participate in its implementation in order to realize the interests of certain social groups and strata of the population.
Along with the parties in political system there are also social and political movements, which represent the solidarity of citizens, aimed at achieving any significant political goal. The core of movements is, as a rule, initiative groups, clubs, unions, etc. Movements, unlike parties, do not set themselves the task of coming to power. They can be attended by people with different political views, but who agree on a specific political goal. It is for the sake of achieving a specific goal that movement is created. Consequently, the goals of the movement are narrower, and the ideological and political orientations and social base are broader than those of political parties. Therefore, movements often become massive. When the goal is achieved, the movement can cease to exist.
Political scientists, on the basis of various criteria, unite parties into groups (types). So, on the basis of ideological criteria, parties are distinguished: conservative, liberal, social democratic, communist, fascist, etc.
Many parties today Western Europe, as well as the United States proclaimed itself to be people's parties, nevertheless, their programs track priorities that, to a greater or lesser extent, reflect group interests. Thus, the programs of the Social Democrats are usually aimed at strengthening social policy in favor of hired workers, workers and employees of the service sector, intellectuals, the poor and vulnerable segments of the population.
On the contrary, the programmatic guidelines of liberals and conservatives are aimed at realizing the interests of the upper and wealthiest strata of the middle class. The policies of these parties revitalize business economic activity, tax rates are changing in favor of big business, and support costs are growing. armed forces and the protection of national borders, as well as the rule of law in society. State interference in the economic sphere is sharply limited.
According to the organizational structure and principles of membership, cadre and mass parties are distinguished. Mass parties are numerous associations with a complex organizational structure. They have permanent memberships and funding sources. At the same time, parties with direct and indirect membership are distinguished. In the first case, the party is admitted on an individual basis, for example, into the ranks of the communist parties. In the second, a person becomes a member of the party simply because he is a member of any organization associated with it.
The cadre parties are few in number and include mostly professional politicians who rely on financial support from the privileged strata of society. It is no coincidence that these parties are called elite parties. Cadre parties usually lack a centralized structure and fixed membership.
In relation to the current policy, the ruling and opposition parties are distinguished.
The ruling parties are the parties that have received the support of the majority of voters in the elections and are implementing their political course. Opposition parties are parties that have a minority of seats in parliament (parliamentary opposition) or that did not enter parliament following the elections (extra-parliamentary opposition). Let us emphasize that under democratic regimes, the presence of opposition is the most important attribute of power, its business card... The opposition prevents the monopolization of power, promotes the change of ruling elites and leaders, and carries a critical spirit in politics.
Question 2. What functions of political parties do you know? Expand their content.
Communication and interaction of the state with civil society is realized through the functions of parties. The most important of them is the representation in power structures of various social interests. Another function is the identification and coordination of the group interests of citizens, giving them the character of political goals and requirements. They are embodied in pre-election party programs, the development of which is also a party function. Parties participate in election campaigns, performing an electoral function. They also have the function of political socialization of citizens. Its essence is the introduction of people to politics, the impact on their political views and value orientations. Parties mobilize their electorate for an active political activity, through parties, social groups often express their attitude to the current policy, including in protest forms, that is, parties perform the function of political mobilization. Taking part in election campaigns and political battles, working in a particular commission, a person gains political experience, develops the qualities necessary for a professional politician. Consequently, the selection and education of political leaders and elites is another function of parties.
Question 3. Describe the main types of party systems.
The practice of electoral systems shows that, despite the plurality of political parties, only a few of them have a chance to win the elections. Usually the most influential parties compete and win parliamentary seats. Certain relations are formed between them - the mechanism of interaction and the struggle of parties for power and its implementation. It received the name of the system of party power (or party system).
Currently, in democratic countries, there are two main types of party systems: bipartisan and multiparty.
A two-party system is one in which only two parties wage a real struggle for power. One of them secures a majority of the votes and becomes, as we have already said, the party of the majority in parliament, while the other sits in it as a minority. Political scientists often compare the bipartisan system to a pendulum. Making the next movement, he reaches the highest point (peak), that is, a rapid change of power.
A multi-party system is formed when several (at least three) influential political parties are fighting for victory in an election. The fragmentation of political forces leads to the need to search for a compromise and unification. Party blocs and inter-party coalitions are being formed. Sometimes they number 5-6 parties, which, having added the votes of their representatives in parliament, acquire a majority.
Many Western democracies have a "two and a half parties" or "two plus" system (a kind of multiparty system). In this case, along with the two main parties, a third, less powerful party appears. She joins a bloc with one of the major parties, influencing the outcome of the elections.
Several countries have established a multi-party system with a dominant party. Its essence is that 4-5 parties take part in the elections, but voters give preference to only one of them - 30-50% of the votes (the rest gain 10-12% of the votes). This party becomes dominant in parliament and government and can stay in power for a long time.
Let us emphasize that a multi-party system with a dominant party cannot be equated with a one-party system, one where only one party has a monopoly on power. There is a "disguised" one-party system, for example, this was the case in a number of former socialist countries of Eastern Europe, and now in China. Under such a system, some parties, although admitted to political life, are the conductors of the will of the ruling party and do not compete with it in the struggle for power. One-party systems usually operate under non-democratic regimes. Consequently, only with a two-party and multi-party systems can one party's monopoly on power be overcome.
Question 4. How is the multi-party system developing in Russia?
In Russia, after a long hiatus, the multi-party system began to develop rapidly since the 1990s. By the beginning of the XXI century, there were over three dozen political parties in the country. However, despite their multiplicity, they were characterized by a lack of a solid social base, a small number, insufficient organizational cohesion and unclear political programs.
Significant amendments (2004) to the law of the Russian Federation on political parties were an important step on the way to the formation of a true multi-party system. A new law of the Russian Federation on elections of deputies to the State Duma (2005) was also adopted, the norms of which enshrined the transition from a mixed majority-proportional system of elections to the lower house of the Russian parliament to elections only by party lists. These legislative acts made higher demands on the parties than before: the party had to have at least 50 thousand members, have regional branches (structural territorial subdivisions) in the constituent entities of the Russian Federation and participate in elections for 5 years (otherwise it was threatened with liquidation in judicial procedure). The legislation did not allow the creation of political parties on the basis of professional, racial, national or religious affiliation. The creation and activity of parties of an extremist persuasion was also prohibited.
The increased demands contributed to the fact that the most influential parties became even stronger, and the weak ones left the political arena.
Changes in the life of Russia caused the emergence of new amendments to the law on political parties. They were proposed by the President of the Russian Federation at the end of 2011 and adopted by the State Duma in March 2012. According to the law, now the party must consist of at least 500 people, it must participate in elections for 7 years.
After the amendments were made to the law on parties, their number increased significantly. Each large batch, as a rule, has its own symbols, program and charter, printed publications, as well as a website on the Internet. The programs outline goals, objectives and priority directions activities of the party, its ideological and political orientations are declared.
Russian parties are created, as a rule, according to the type of mass parties. Their structure is usually made up of regional, local and primary departments. The chairman (leader) of the party is elected by its supreme body - the congress. Membership is voluntary and individual. A citizen of the Russian Federation who has reached the age of 18 can become a party member. At the same time, he must recognize and implement the program and charter of the party, as well as personally participate in its work. A party member is issued a party card.
TASKS
Question 1. Imagine a situation: you are talking to a friend, and he claims that the club, which his older brother belongs to, is a new political party. What questions would you ask your friend to make sure they are right?
1) The name of this party.
2) Which wing does his brother belong to?
3) What views does this party hold?
4) How does this party differ from others?
Question 2. At the beginning of the XVIII century. Lord Bolingbroke had the idea of creating his own "party of the fatherland", which would have absorbed "all the healthy forces of the nation" to control the rest of the individuals less loyal to the state. Two centuries later, this idea was embodied in the activities of a number of parties. Which ones? Explain the answer.
The National Socialist German Workers' Party is a political party in Germany that existed from 1920 to 1945, from July 1933 to May 1945 - the ruling and only legal party in Germany.
The National Fascist Party is an Italian political party founded in 1921 by Benito Mussolini to implement the ideology of fascism. The predecessor of the fascist party was the Italian Struggle Union, led by Mussolini. The National Fascist Party has participated in the Italian parliament since 1921, received a majority in parliament in 1924, and from 1928 became the only legal party in the country until the fall of Mussolini's regime in 1943.
The world of political parties is diverse and changeable: some of them dominate the political scene, others only signify their presence on it; some parties include millions of citizens in their ranks, others are content with a few thousand members. No typology can exhaust all the richness of this phenomenon. However, comprehension of the nature of parties led to attempts to classify and systematize them. The transition from descriptiveness to the level of theoretical generalizations made it possible to penetrate deeper into the nature of parties and reveal their most characteristic features.
In political science, there are various systems for classifying parties. Various factors are used as the basis for typologization - functions, ideology, social base, methods of activity, etc. Thus, proponents of the institutional approach use the organizational criterion; for the liberal tradition, the main classification is considered from the point of view of the nature of the ideological connection; Marxists assign the main role in classification to the class criterion.
However, not all typologies have the same cognitive meaning, but they reflect different sides of political reality and help determine the nature, place and role of specific parties in the political life of society. Based on this, the whole variety of classifications of political parties can be represented in the following schematic form:
Typology of political parties
|
Foundations |
views |
|
Organizational structure |
Personnel Massive Decorated (with fixed membership) Unregistered (with free membership) Centralized Decentralized |
|
Activity environment |
Mono-media Universal Intermediate |
|
Ideological orientation |
- "Left" - "Center" - "Right" Revolutionary (radical) Reform (moderate) Conservative Reactionary |
|
Role in the political system |
Ruling Oppositional Parliamentary - "Vanguard" |
|
Influence in parliament |
Majority (majority) Majority vocation Dominant Minority (minority) |
|
Representation interests |
Class Social groups, layers Overclass With an undefined social identity |
|
Party leadership type |
Collegial leadership Leadership |
According to this table, we will reveal in more detail the most important classifications:
In political science, the generally recognized and most productive is the classification of political parties by Maurice Duverger, based on differences in the structure of parties and the organization of their internal life.
In the course work, we have already touched on the structure of parties, considering its main levels, and here it only remains to add that the structure is a kind of synthetic component influenced by a significant number of factors (ideology, goals, social base, etc.). At the same time, it is she who contributes to the adaptation of the party to changing conditions, acts as a necessary element for the survival of parties in the political struggle.
Among the structural characteristics, Duverger singled out: the general organizational structure, the membership system, the governing bodies, as well as the types of ties that connect citizens with the party. On the basis of these variables, he proposed to subdivide parties into two main types - "cadre" and "mass".
Personnel parties - are an association of so-called "notables", that is, persons of authority in society, skillful organizers of election campaigns. Their goal is to prepare the elections, hold them and keep in touch with the candidates. First of all, these are influential notables, whose names and prestige serve as a kind of guarantee for the candidate and provide him with votes; they are, furthermore, technical notables, mastering the art of manipulating voters and organizing a campaign; Finally, these are financial notables - the components of the main engine, the engine of the struggle. In essence, cadre parties are parties of activists or functionaries with a small number of ordinary members and an amorphous organized structure. As a result, the very entry into them has the meaning of a kind of deeply individual act, due to the abilities or special position of a person, his strictly determined personal qualities. It is an act available to the elect; it is based on tight and closed internal selection. If we consider a party member who signs an application for admission to the party and subsequently regularly pays contributions, then cadre parties have no members. True, it is worth making a reservation here, since cadre parties, in imitation of the mass ones, sometimes open access to ordinary adherents. The phenomenon is quite frequent - in its pure form, cadre parties are quite rare. Other parties are close to this practice, but their external form can be misleading. But the main thing is not to limit ourselves to either the official clauses of the statutes, or the declarations of the leaders. A fairly correct criterion here is the absence of a registration system or regular collection of contributions.
The main structural element of cadre parties are the committees . They are created on a territorial basis, and their number is usually small. The committees have a permanent composition of close-knit activists with the skills to work with the community. On their shoulders and lay down the organization of election campaigns. Members of the committees select candidates for elections to government bodies, study public opinion, the interests and sympathies of voters, their expectations and requirements, and help leaders in shaping the program. It should be noted that ideological issues concern activists insofar as they can help their candidates. The activity of the committees usually has, as they say, “seasonal” character: it concentrates and intensifies around the candidate for an elective office, on the eve of and during the election campaign to parliament or local authorities, and fades away after its end.
Examples of cadre parties include the European Liberal and Conservative Parties, as well as the Republican and Democratic Parties of the United States.
Mass parties- are characterized by a large number of members, a closer and more constant connection of their members, a centralized hierarchical organizational structure. In order to fully understand the essence of mass parties, let us take, for example, the French Socialist Party. Recruiting new members is for her the main task, both from a political and financial point of view, since she, first of all, seeks to give political education to the working class, to select from its midst an elite capable of taking over the power and control of the country. And this means that its members constitute the very matter of the party, the substance of its activity - without them it would resemble a teacher without students. Financially, the French Socialist Party is also heavily dependent on the contributions of its members. With their help, she collects funds necessary for political education and daily work, and finances elections at their expense. Here, the political aspect joins the financial aspect. This last aspect of the problem is the main one, since any election campaign is expensive. The technology of mass parties replaces the capitalist way of financing elections with a democratic one. Instead of reaching out to a few private donors to cover campaign costs, mass parties spread the burden of costs to as many members as possible, so each has a small amount of money. Thus, what the cadre parties achieve with “quality”, the mass parties achieve with “quantity”.
Primary organizations of mass parties are based on both territorial and production principles, but unlike committees, they are open to new members. Moreover, they are interested in recruiting their ranks.
The increase in the number of party members, the need to deal with financial issues led to the formation in the structure of the mass parties of the relevant bodies, striving to spread their influence and keeping records and control over the spending of financial resources. There is a complex internal, hierarchical structure, subordination of primary organizations, and a cumbersome management system.
M. Duverger identified three types of mass parties: socialist, communist and fascist.
Socialist parties
The primary organizations of the socialist parties are sections at the place of residence of several hundred people. They form a federation. The party turns into a kind of state apparatus with a separation of powers, where the legislative power belongs to the Congress (or the national council), the executive to the executive committee (or the national secretariat), and the control commission exercises legal power.
Communist parties
Communist parties create their primary organizations (cells) at their place of work. They are more uniform and limited in size. This allows them to control their social composition, regulate their numbers and establish strict party discipline. The organizational principle of the parties is "democratic centralism". In practice, hierarchical and centralized organization severely limits democracy. The election of a leader turns into a formality, since their selection, as well as decision-making, is carried out by the centralized leadership of the parties.
Fascist parties.
They have a lot in common with communist ones: vertical ties, centralization of power, rigid structure, etc. However, fascist parties differ from communist ones in their social composition, doctrine and philosophy. Originating from paramilitaries, they end up cultivating cruelty and violence based on the superiority of one nation over another. The primary organization of the fascist parties is an assault detachment of 4 to 12 people. As part of a larger group, the assault squads create a party pyramid like a cadre party.
Such a classification of parties into personnel and massive proposed by a French political scientist M. Duverger, to a certain extent, is outdated today, since it does not allow for the existence of parties of an intermediate type. In the 60s of the XX century, parties appeared that did not fit into this typology and at the same time combined the features of both cadre and mass parties. Then authoritative political scientists - LaPalombara, J. Sartori without rejecting M. Duverger's scheme, they proposed to supplement it, highlighting the third type of parties - "parties of voters". These parties, not being massive, were focused on unification maximum number voters of all social backgrounds around their agenda to address the main issues of the moment. Later, such parties were called "universal". In recent years, this type of party has become the most dynamically developing in Europe and America. To a large extent, this is due to the weakening of ideological differences, the growing interest of citizens in universal, universal values. Many political analysts believe that the future belongs to the universal parties in a post-industrial society.
In addition to this classification, the division of political parties, depending on their place and role in the political system, is also traditional in political science. The following types of parties are distinguished here: ruling,oppositional,parliamentary, and "Avant-garde".
The ruling parties are considered that won the elections and (most importantly) formed the government. The ruling party (or a party coalition of several parties united into a single bloc) pursues its own political course through “its” prime minister and cabinet members. As a rule, this is possible only in a parliamentary republic, while a presidential republic can be governed by a president representing a minority party in parliament. And in this case, even a victory in the elections does not ensure the ruling status of the leading political party (for example, the success of the Liberal Democratic Party of Russia in 1993, or the Communist Party of the Russian Federation in 1995 at the elections did not give them the opportunity to form the government of Russia in a presidential republic). Therefore, the main feature of the ruling party is the possibility of independent government formation.
Oppositional parties are those that are deprived of a real opportunity to influence the formation of the government and are in obvious opposition to the policies of the current government. Their super task is to conquer power in the next elections and change the existing government. To do this, they actively use criticism of the existing government for its mistakes, strict control over the actions of the authorities, which are checked for compliance with the constitution and laws, and proposals to society of alternative projects for the country's development.
Parliamentary parties – they are parties operating in competitive political systems. They set themselves the task of conquering state power by gaining a majority in state structures, by winning elections. In parties of this type, there are two organizational centers: the chairman of the party and its leader. The chairman is actually a manager, the head of the party machine: he coordinates the activities of regional branches, organizes election campaigns, and maintains party documents. The leader is the personification of the political image of the party, he is elected at the annual party conferences. In some batches, these two centers can be combined. The party discipline of parliamentary parties differs significantly from the disciplines of parties of other types: there is no principle of subordination of the minority to the majority, that is, the organizational center has virtually no leverage to ensure unity of mind in the party. This gives rise to a large looseness of the organization, a significant number of factions, constant discussions.
"Vanguard" parties – their distinctive features are: centralism, rigid subordination, unquestioning obedience to the decisions of higher bodies. Moreover, these features are inherent in vanguard parties not only during the struggle for power, but also when power is in their hands. Parties of this kind, under certain conditions, degenerate into totalitarian parties. Members of totalitarian parties obey one idea, which over time, as a rule, is personified, that is, the leader of the party, as the main bearer of the idea, becomes the supreme authority of the party. Such parties are always revolutionary. The Social Democratic Labor Party (RSDLP), which later became the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, can be considered a classic example of a vanguard party.
A significant place in political science literature is occupied by the classification of parties according to the criterion of the environment of activity. From the point of view of this criterion, three types of parties are distinguished:
Mono-media- i.e. limited to activities in one social environment, the one whose interests they represent (in the field of politics).
Universal- focused on the general social or national environment and not limited to the desire to gain influence in any one environment (class, social group etc.)
Intermediate- concentrating their activities primarily in one environment, but not refusing to seek support and influence in other communities.
In a multi-party system, each party represents more or less clearly defined ideological, political or ideological positions. The spectrum of these positions ranges from the extreme right to the extreme left. The rest of the parties occupy an intermediate position between these two poles. In this regard, the classification of political parties based on their ideological orientation is widely used today. As a rule, in multi-party parliaments, seats are arranged in the form of a semicircle, where, following the tradition of the French revolution, representatives of conservative and right-wing parties sit on the right side of the chairman, further to the left - parties close to them in spirit, in the center - moderate and further at the very end - representatives of left-wing radical parties. According to classical terminology, the so-called “ left" parties, for the most part, profess socialist, communist values and, accordingly, radical revolutionary methods of achieving them. " Rights", on the contrary, they are mainly guided by conservative bourgeois values, the stability of the political system, the denial of communist ideals and revolutionary methods of rebuilding society. " Centrists " however, very broad and diverse in their composition, they are moderate political forces that do not strive for drastic changes in society, preferring reformatory, evolutionary paths of development in order to improve the well-being of members of society. Compromise, cooperation, attempt maximum accounting various public interests are at the core of their daily politics.
Such a grouping of political parties along the line "right" - "centrists" - "left", based on positions and attitudes on socio-economic and political problems, is associated with a significant degree of simplification of the real state of affairs in society. Therefore, in addition to it, it is customary to distinguish between revolutionary, reformist, conservative and reactionary types of parties on the basis of an ideological (ideological) criterion.
Revolutionary- strive for a qualitative restructuring of public life.
Reformist- focused on significant quantitative transformations of society, but without disrupting its basic structure.
Conservative- strive for stable preservation of the main characteristics of contemporary social reality.
Reactionary- their main goal is a partial or complete return to the characteristics of the previous stage of the existing socio-economic formation.
So, having examined the most important classifications, we can conclude that it is possible to correctly assess political parties, their activities and place in the political system only from a unifying point of view, since no typology or frozen scheme, taken separately, will ever exhaust the entire diversity of this phenomenon. Therefore, only analysis taking into account all classifications and consideration of lots from different angles of view can ultimately lead to an objective assessment.
A political party (from Lat. Pars (partis) - part, participation, share) is an organized group of like-minded people expressing the interests of certain social strata and striving to achieve certain political goals (conquering state power or participating in its implementation).
Any political party has a number of characteristics.
Distinctive features of a political party
1. The bearer of a certain ideology or a special vision of the world and man.
2. Aiming at the conquest and exercise of power.
3. The presence of a political program, that is, a document in which the goals and objectives of the party are formulated both in terms of participation in political life, and in the event that the party comes to power.
4. The presence of the organization:
In any party there are governing bodies, both central and local, which are responsible for developing strategies and tactics for the political activity of the party;
Any party is characterized by membership, that is, it consists of a strictly defined number of members, who usually pay membership fees and in a certain way participate in the activities of the party;
Any party has a charter, that is, a document that establishes the most important norms of internal party life.
5. Existence of an extensive network of local organizations, the core of which is formed by volunteer activists.
The real diversity of parties involved in the political life of society is enormous. It is partly due to the fact that different parties profess different ideologies, which are implemented not only in words, that is, in political programs, but also in deeds, including how the parties are organized, what goals they set and what the way of achievement is chosen. Here it is necessary to take into account and personality traits leaders, and the leadership of the party, as well as the specifics of the country's political regime, etc.
To cover all the diversity of parties in terms of their ideology and internal device, it is impossible to restrict oneself to any one principle of classification. Therefore, in political science there are numerous classifications, with the help of which one can ultimately describe any party.
Types of political parties (main classifications).
1. Classification by ideological orientation:
Social Democratic - advocate a more visible participation of the state in the life of society, in the management of the economy while maintaining fundamental freedoms;
Communist - strive for the complete nationalization of the economy, the distribution of wealth, taking into account the interests of all social strata of society, complete control by the state over the spheres of education, health care, etc .;
Conservative and liberal - they are guided by the denationalization of the economy and some other spheres of life, i.e. to minimize the participation of the state in the life of society;
Clerical - adhere to a religious ideology;
Nationalist - build their activities on the basis of nationalist and fascist ideas.
2. Participation in the exercise of power:
The ruling parties are those parties that are in power;
Opposition parties are those parties that are not in power and have the main task of conquering power: legal, semi-legal, illegal.
3. Nature of membership:
Personnel parties: - not numerous; - free membership in them; - rely on professional politicians and the financial elite; - there are only those members who vote in the elections for the given party; - carry out activities only during the election period;
Mass parties: - numerous; - the educational function prevails in them; - are distinguished by close ties between party members; - they have tough discipline; - there are primary party organizations; - their activities are carried out systematically.
4. Political spectrum scale:
Left parties (socialist and communist parties): - for reforms; - for crowding out the private sector; - social protection of workers; - radical revolutionary methods of action. Center parties: - compromise; - cooperation;
Right-wing parties (liberal and conservative parties): - for a strong state; - protection of private property; - for stability; - negative attitude towards the revolution.
5. Way of operation:
Reformist - strive for gradual transformation of society using legal means of influencing power and legal means of achieving power;
Revolutionary - strive to transform society using means of struggle, which, from the point of view of the existing state structure and political regime, are illegal.
The role of any party is not limited to the achievement of political power or the expression of political interests. In fact, the functions that the party performs in political life are much more diverse.
The main functions of a political party: the struggle for power in the state and influence on the policy of the state; participation in the exercise of power; participation in the formation of power; political education; shaping public opinion; training of cadres of politicians; expression of interests of social groups.
The party system is a set of parties participating in the formation of legislative and executive power structures.
Depending on how many parties are functioning in political sphere, distinguish one-party, two-party and multi-party systems.
Types of party systems:
1. One-party - one party functions in society, which eventually removes all competitors from political life (for example, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union before 1990). Formed under authoritarian and totalitarian regimes. It is often accompanied by such a phenomenon as "artificial multiparty system" (not to be confused with a multiparty system in the proper sense of the word): there are many political parties associated with national and other communities and in the form of popular fronts. However, ideological life depends on one party, which completely determines the activities and any political activity of the other parties.
2. Bipartisan - there are two strong parties in society that periodically come to power. "Power exchange" is carried out as a result of elections only between these two parties (for example, the Republican and Democratic parties in the United States). There are other parties, but they are not popular enough to come to power. Formed in economically developed countries. Usually based on a majoritarian electoral system.
3. Multi-party - in society there is competition between many parties, none of which has advantages over the others. The fragmentation of political forces leads to the need to find a compromise (from the Latin compro-missum - an agreement reached through concessions) and associations. Party blocs are formed (for example, in France) and multi-party coalitions (for example, in the Netherlands, Finland). It is formed in developed democratic societies, in which most of the freedoms of citizens are observed, the level of economic development is high, which is manifested primarily in the presence of a powerful and large middle class. It develops under the influence of the proportional electoral system.
In a number of countries (Japan, Sweden, Denmark), a multi-party system with one dominant party has been established: 4-5 parties take part in the elections, but voters give preference to only one of them - 30-50% of the votes
Political (socio-political, socio-political) movements are voluntary formations that arise as a result of the free and conscious desire of citizens to unite on the basis of their community of interests.
V modern world the following democratic movements exist:
For the preservation and development of democracy, human rights and freedoms;
Anti-war, anti-nuclear;
For land and social rights of peasants;
For a new economic order (anti-globalism);
Non-alignment;
Environmental;
Against racial and national discrimination;
Women's, youth, student.
Distinctive features of political movements
1. They strive not to achieve power, but to influence the power in the direction they need (for example, in demanding that the power change in the internal or foreign policy, solutions to social problems, etc.).
2. Have voluntary membership or do not have clear, formal procedures related to membership:
They are closer to the everyday life of people than political parties;
A broader, more amorphous, variegated social base than that of a political party;
The optional nature of the complete ideological unity of the participants, in contrast to a political party.
3. They do not have a strict hierarchy, that is, there is no clear distribution between the center and the periphery.
4. They are guided by the expression of the private interests of a particular group of people.
Stages of development of political movements:
Stage I: Generation of ideas -> Emergence of activists -> Development of common views.
Stage II: Propaganda of views-> Agitation-> Attracting the maximum number of supporters.
Stage III: Clearer formation of ideas and requirements -> Development of social and political activity.
Further, there is registration in a socio-political organization or party, as well as participation in political power. As a result, the goals have been achieved or there are no prospects for their achievement-> The movement fades.
Types of political movements (main classifications):
1) Classification by ideological orientation: socio-political, confessional, economic, environmental and anti-war.
2) Classification by mode of activity: revolutionary, counter-revolutionary, reformist and conservative.
3) Classification by the number of participants: mass and elite.
4) Classification according to the scale of the political spectrum: left, centrist and right.
Political parties in Russia began to emerge much later than in Western countries: only at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries.
The main stages of the formation of a multi-party system in Russia:
1. The turn of the XIX-XX centuries. - the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (RSDLP), the Party of Socialist Revolutionaries (SRs): the emerging parties operate underground, illegally. Their main political goal is to end the autocracy and the remnants of serfdom.
2.1905-1907 - Party of Constitutional Democrats (Cadets), Union of October 17 (Octobrists), Socialist-Revolutionaries, RSDLP, Union of the Russian People: the formation of a multi-party system on a legal basis. Participation of parties in the election campaign to the State Duma.
3.1917-1920 - RSDLP (b) - Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (RCP (b)), Left Socialist-Revolutionaries, Mensheviks: preservation of a multi-party system.
4.120-1977 - RCP (b) - All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (VKP (b)) - Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU): the Bolshevik-Communist Party gets the only monopoly on power. The one-party system in the USSR was not yet legally formalized.
5.177-1988 - CPSU: legalization of the one-party system in the country in Art. 6 of the Constitution of the USSR of 1977 on the leading and guiding role of the CPSU.
6.188-1991 - The Communist Party of the Soviet Union, the Movement for Democratic Reforms, the Democratic Party of Russia, the Republican Party of the Russian Federation, "Democratic Russia", the Liberal Democratic Party, the Peasant Party of Russia, etc.: the emergence of the main political parties. Cancellation of Art. 6 of the USSR Constitution meant the end of the monopoly of the CPSU (1990). Adoption of the law "On public associations". Reform of the CPSU. Official registration along with the CPSU of the Liberal Democratic Party of Russia (LDPR).
7.1991-1993 - "Civil Union", "Democratic Choice", "Labor Moscow", "Memory", the Communist Party of the Russian Federation (KPRF), the Liberal Democratic Party, the Agrarian Party, "Russia's Choice": the collapse of the CPSU. Adoption of the Constitution of the Russian Federation at a referendum, which consolidated the multiparty system as a constitutional principle (Article 13). The emergence of dozens and even hundreds of small political parties.
8. The turn of the XX-XXI centuries. - "United Russia", the Communist Party, "Fair Russia", the Liberal Democratic Party, "Yabloko": the adoption of the "Law on Political Parties" (2001). The demarcation of political forces, the struggle around the essence, directions and pace of reforms in Russia, the participation of political parties and blocs in the elections to the State Duma and the President of the Russian Federation.
The formation of influential parties is an important condition for the democratic development of Russia. However, in any case, it cannot repeat the political process in Western countries, on the one hand, as a result of the originality of the national-cultural tradition, and on the other, due to the irreversibility of historical time.