The concept of labor, its role in the life of society. Public organization of labor. General characteristics of relations arising in the labor process. Labor, basic concepts and role in the development of human society

Labor is an expedient activity of a person and society, aimed at preserving and adapting the sphere of living, creating material and cultural values to meet their needs.

The labor process is always associated with the expenditure of physical and psychological energy, as well as resources. Labor is one of the main factors of production, along with land, natural resources, capital and entrepreneurship. Labor is the natural condition of human life. It allows a person to become a person, to produce material and spiritual goods and receive surplus value. The labor process is self-governing and externally controlled. Any labor process presupposes the presence of an object of labor, means of labor, technology and labor itself, as an activity to impart the necessary properties to the object of labor. Labor has a technological, economic and social side.

Subjects of labor are all that labor is directed to, that undergoes changes for acquisition useful properties and thus meet human needs.

The means of labor are what a person uses to influence the subject of labor. These include machines, mechanisms, tools, devices, and other tools of labor, as well as buildings and structures that create the necessary conditions for the effective use of these tools.

The means of production are the totality of the means of labor and the objects of labor.

Technology is a way of influencing objects of labor, the procedure for using tools of labor.

As a result of the completion of the labor process, the products of labor are formed.

The main forms of manifestation of labor are:

1) The cost of human energy. The psychophysiological side of work, expressed in the expenditure of energy of muscles, brain, nerves and sensory organs. The expenditure of human energy is determined by the severity of labor and the level of neuropsychological tension. They form conditions such as fatigue and fatigue. Human performance and health, as well as his development, depend on the level of expenditure of human energy.

2) The interaction of the worker with the means of production. This is the organizational and technological aspect of work. It is determined by the level of technical equipment of labor, the degree of its mechanization and automation, the perfection of technology, the organization of working time, the qualifications of the worker, his experience, the methods and methods of labor used by him. These parameters of activity represent the requirements for the special training of workers and their qualification level.

3) Production interaction of workers with each other, both horizontally (collective) and vertically (boss-subordinate). It determines the organizational and economic aspect of labor activity, which depends on the level of labor cooperation, on the number of employees, etc.

The role of labor in the real development of man and society is manifested in the fact that in the labor process not only material and spiritual values are created, but also the workers themselves develop, who acquire new skills, reveal their abilities, replenish and enrich their knowledge.

The creative nature of labor finds its expression in the birth of new ideas, the emergence of progressive technologies, more perfect and highly productive tools of labor, new types of products, materials, energy, which in turn lead to the development of needs.

Thus, the consequence of labor activity is, on the one hand, the saturation of the market with goods, services and cultural values, and on the other hand, the progress of production, the emergence of new needs and their subsequent satisfaction. This is the economic role of labor.

The social role of labor is manifested in the development and improvement of production, has a beneficial effect on the reproduction of the population, an increase in its material and cultural level.

This is an ideal scheme for the impact of labor on individuals and society.

Labor functions:

1) the production of material and spiritual benefits in order to meet personal and social needs;

2) ensuring the safety of human life and society, preserving nature, ensuring a healthy social environment;

3) the formation and accumulation of material and intangible wealth, the development of factors of production, science, technology and culture;

4) the development of the person himself, the formation of a creative personality.

Types of labor:

By the nature and content of labor:

1) hired and private;

2) individual and collective;

3) at will, by necessity or by duress;

4) physical and mental;

5) reproductive and creative;

6) by varying degrees of difficulty.

By subject and product of labor

1) scientific, engineering, management, production, etc .;

2) industrial, agricultural, transport, communication, etc.

III. By means and methods of work

1) manual (technically unarmed);

2) mechanized;

3) automated (including computerized).

By working conditions

1) stationary and mobile;

2) ground and underground;

3) by severity;

4) attractive and unattractive;

5) free and regulated, and according to the degree of regulation.

The social organization of labor is a connection between people and people in the process of joint labor that exists in a given society, state, including their relations in terms of property to the means of production and the product of labor. These relations of people historically determined for each state, society, i.e. their connections in participation in the social organization of labor, and are the subject of legal regulation, i.e. the subject of the branch of labor law.

Labor as an expedient human activity has three forms of manifestation:

the expenditure of physiological energy of workers - the biological (physiological, psychological and psychophysiological) side of labor activity;

interaction with the means of production - organizational and technological side;

production interaction of workers with each other is the organizational and social side.

The forms of manifestation of labor reflect the structure of labor as an organic set of processes occurring during labor. This structure is shown in Fig. 2.4, which shows that a single labor process is manifested threefold, moreover, the costs of the physiological energy of workers are directly related both to the process of interaction of people with the means of production, and to the process of production interaction of people with each other, i.e. these processes are inseparable, are in unity, one does not exist without the other.

Rice. 2.4. Manifestation and structure of the labor process

Consideration of the forms of manifestation of labor separately makes some sense, for example, in the study of such aspects of labor.

yes, as the degree of its severity, intensity, content, etc. But labor as an expenditure of human strength in the physiological sense, in isolation from other forms of its manifestation, is impossible. Worktriune: it is presented in the unity of these three forms of manifestation. To represent labor in such a way that one of its forms of manifestation forms the value of the product of labor, and other forms of manifestation form the utility of a thing is to distort the essence of labor.

Let us consider in more detail the forms of manifestation of labor.

Biological (physiological, psychological and psychophysiological) side labor activity consists in the expenditure of the energy of the muscles, brain, nerves, and sense organs in the process of labor. Human energy expenditure depends on the amount of physical (dynamic and static) and neuropsychic stress on the human body.

is determined by the volume of physical work (in kilogram meters), the amount of energy consumption (in calories), the power of the effort (in watts). Static characterized by the amount of effort that a person makes without moving the body or its individual parts, multiplied by the time that this effort is maintained (in kilograms per second).

is determined by:

the volume and nature of information that the employee perceives and processes to make certain decisions during the work shift;

the intensity of attention, which depends on the number of simultaneously observed objects, the duration of concentrated observation and the duration of active actions;

the intensity of analytical and mental activity, depending on the density of signals - the number of messages per hour, the volume of operative memory - the number of elements retained in memory for a certain period of time, the magnitude of emotional and intellectual tension;

the degree of monotony of labor, depending on the number and duration of elements of production operations, the frequency of their repetition, the time of passive observation of the progress of the technological process, the duration of the time of monotonous labor during the shift;

the pace of work, i.e. the number of movements of arms, legs, head, body per unit of time.

In the process of labor, a person is affected by a large number of external production and non-production factors that affect his performance and health. The combination of these factors is called working conditions. A generalizing assessment of the cumulative impact on a person of all environmental factors will characterize the severity of labor, which, in accordance with the methodological recommendations developed by the Scientific Research Institute of Labor (Research Institute of Labor), is divided into six groups (categories) of the severity of labor: 1) comfortable conditions; 2) favorable conditions; 3) working conditions, when at the end of the working period a borderline state of the organism arises with the instability of physiological reactions that easily change towards improvement; 4) when there are pre-pathological changes in the body; 5) when at the end of the working period a pathological state of the body occurs; 6) when the onset of a pathological state of the human body occurs soon after the start of work, which often turns into the development of a serious disease 1.

Organizational and technological side labor activity consists in a certain system of interaction of the worker with the means of production - the objects and means of labor.

Such interaction depends: firstly, on the technology and techniques of production (activity), which determine the technical equipment of labor, the degree of its mechanization and automation, the perfection of technological processes; secondly, from such issues of work organization as the organization of workplaces, work and rest regimes, training and advanced training of workers, the use of rational methods and methods of work.

Dependence of labor processes on technical and technologicalequipment of production manifests itself in the fact that, for example, labor-saving technologies used in enterprises (especially with harmful and dangerous working conditions) lead to a relative and absolute reduction in labor costs; technological processes, which are characterized by a high labor intensity of work, make increased demands on the quality of labor, strict adherence to the method of performing work, and rational use of working time; the increase in the complexity of the work requires an increase in the qualifications of workers; the more complex the technique, the higher the requirements for labor discipline, etc.

1 Makushin V.G., Slavina S.E. Medico-physiological classification of work by severity: Methodical recommendations / Research Institute of Labor. M-, 1974.

a) a well-thought-out layout of workplaces provides savings in working time and physiological efforts of workers by reducing the routes of their movement at the workplace, ease of maintenance of equipment, rational working posture;

b) rational techniques and methods of labor contribute to the achievement of better use of tools and equipment, economical use of working time, ensuring high quality work, performance and overfulfillment of labor standards;

c) a physiologically grounded intrashift work and rest regime creates conditions for the performance of production functions (job duties) with the lowest labor costs while maintaining high efficiency of the personnel;

d) timely and high quality training and advanced training of employees are necessary to ensure that the level of qualifications of personnel is consistent with the complexity and quality of work performed.

Organizational and social side labor activity reflects the production interaction of workers with each other. Such interaction is carried out both horizontally (interaction between employees of adjacent workplaces, as well as between main and auxiliary workers) and vertically (production relations between managers and subordinates).

The interaction between employees depends on the following factors:

from the form of labor organization - individual or group (collective), as well as the level of division and cooperation of labor adopted at the enterprise;

social structure and number of personnel;

organizational and legal form of the enterprise.

Labor organization form largely determines the nature and content of labor, as well as the order of interaction between workers. Individual labor organization based on the establishment of a production task separately for each employee, personal accounting of the work performed by him and the calculation of wages based on the results of this performance. Group (numberlective) work organization assumes that the establishment of the production target, the accounting of work performed and the calculation of earnings are carried out for individual departments without an individual breakdown for each employee. Therefore, with a group (number 47

lective) organization of labor, for example, the brigade organization of labor, the system of production interaction within the unit is determined by the specific circumstances that arise in it, which makes it possible to respond to them more flexible than with the individual organization of labor.

Forms of division of labor (functional, technological, professional and qualification division) and corresponding forms cooperation of labor also characterize the features of production interaction between workers, creating different opportunities for him to use labor, depending on what forms are adopted at the enterprise.

At functional division of labor, those. the separation of types of labor activities depending on the functions performed by employees at the enterprise, interaction (labor cooperation) is carried out between different functional groups of workers, such as, for example, main and auxiliary workers, workers and employees, managers and specialists, etc.

Technological section & those of labor for individual production operations and types of work entails the need for interaction between workers performing different operations and types of work. The same can be said about the professional and qualification division and cooperation of labor.

The noted types of production interaction of workers reflect its organizational side. But the interaction of workers as a form of manifestation of the labor process has and socialthe other side- interaction in production between different social groups of personnel, differing in gender, age, education, work experience, marital status, etc. The social and demographic (gender and age) structure of employees of an enterprise, institution leaves an imprint on the nature of production interaction between them. Therefore, when studying or organizing the labor process, it is necessary to pay attention to the social parameters of the personnel. So, for example, the most favorable working environment can be achieved in teams that include men and women, where middle-aged people predominate in the age structure, and family workers who have the necessary professional education and significant production experience at this enterprise prevail in the social structure. ...

Social structure of personnel - this is its structure, which is determined by the composition and combination of various social groups in it. 48

Social group at the enterprise is a joint NS a pool of workers who have some common social feature uniting them, property, for example: level of education, profession, length of service, etc.

The social structure of personnel is an important parameter affecting the efficiency of an enterprise. Favorablesocial structure promotes the development of labor activity, creative initiative, high labor discipline and the growth of its efficiency. Unfavorable social structure makes it difficult to effectively solve production problems.

Depending on the presence of certain social groups, various social sections of the enterprise personnel are formed, and in this regard, the following types of social structure are distinguished: functional-production, professional-qualification, demographic, national, socio-psychological, etc.

Functional and production structure consists of functional groups of workers: employees (managers, specialists, technical executors), workers (main and auxiliary). These functional groups are combined into production units that have a hierarchy and report to certain officials.

Vocational qualification structure is formed by employees of different professional groups, also subdivided according to the level of qualifications, education, work experience. Demographic structure personnel is determined by its composition by gender and age. Sociological research confirms that same-sex personnel are less effective than heterosexual ones. The combination of age groups is also of great importance. The prevalence of older people at the enterprise is characterized by high labor discipline, low staff turnover, high quality of work performed, but at the same time, elements of conservatism increase when using innovations, and the level of loss of working time due to the increased morbidity of workers increases. The predominance of young people is also characterized by specific manifestations - high staff turnover, faster reaction to innovations, etc.

National structure personnel still relatively recently in many enterprises was of secondary importance. However, with the collapse of the USSR, the growth of separatism and national self-awareness, the national composition of personnel in a number of regions of the country became

a noticeable factor of stability or, conversely, increased tension at enterprises.

Socio-psychological structure is formed on the basis of common interests, value orientations, hobbies of different groups of personnel. Such groups can include and include employees regardless of their belonging to groups formed according to other characteristics, i.e. there can be people of different ages, nationalities, professions, etc.

The totality of these, as well as other social groups, forms a certain moral and psychological climate at the enterprise and in its subdivisions, features of the attitude to work, a state of cohesion or disunity, more or less interest in achieving common production goals.

Features of the production interaction of workers with each other also depend on the number of personnel. In enterprises with a small number of employees, the work of each, as a rule, is in everyone's sight, which creates conditions for organizing more precise production interaction. In addition, a small staff is easier to organize, easier to individualize and control their work. At large enterprises, such conditions are typical for individual departments, and in different departments they can differ significantly from each other.

The nature of the interaction of employees is influenced by and organizational and legal form of the enterprise. V in accordance with the Civil Code of the Russian Federation (hereinafter - the Civil Code of the Russian Federation), these forms include business partnerships (general partnerships and limited partnerships), business companies (joint stock companies, limited or additional liability companies), production and consumer cooperatives, state and municipal unitary enterprises. Here the form of ownership of the enterprise is important, its size.

So: all the noted aspects of the manifestation of labor are in an indissoluble unity and represent unified labor process.

Work Is an activity aimed at human development and the transformation of natural resources into material, intellectual and spiritual benefits. Such activity can be carried out either under duress, or on an inner urge, or both.

Sociological functions of labor:

Socio-economic function consists in the impact of subjects of labor (workers) on objects and elements of the natural environment (resources) in order to transform them into items to meet the needs of members of society, that is, into material goods and services.

Productive function is to meet the needs of people in creativity and self-expression. Thanks to this function of labor, new objects and technologies are created.

Social structuring function labor is to differentiate and integrate the efforts of people involved in the labor process. On the one hand, the assignment of various functions to different categories of participants in the labor process leads to differentiation and the creation of specialized types of labor. On the other hand, the exchange of the results of labor activity leads to the establishment of certain links between different categories of participants in the labor process. Thus, this function of labor contributes to the creation of socio-economic ties between different groups of people.

Social control function labor is due to the fact that labor organizes a complex system of social relations, regulated by values, norms of behavior, standards, sanctions, etc., which are a system of social control of labor relations. It includes labor legislation, economic and technical standards, charters of organizations, job descriptions, informal norms, a certain organizational culture.

Socializing function labor is associated with the fact that labor activity expands and enriches the composition of social roles, patterns of behavior, norms and values of workers, which allows people to feel like full participants in social life. This function gives people the opportunity to acquire a certain status, to feel social belonging and identity.

Social developmental function labor is manifested in the impact of the content of labor on workers, collectives and society as a whole. This is due to the fact that as the means of labor develop and improve, the complexity and renewal of the content of labor occurs. This process is due to the creative nature of man. Thus, there is an increase in requirements for the level of knowledge and qualifications of employees in almost all sectors of the modern economy. The function of training employees is one of the priority functions of personnel management in a modern organization.

Socio-stratification function labor is a derivative of socially structuring and is associated with the fact that the results of various types of labor differently are rewarded and appreciated by society. Accordingly, some types of labor activity are recognized more, while others are less important and prestigious. Thus, labor activity contributes to the formation and maintenance of the dominant system of values in society and performs the function of ranking the participants in labor activity by ranks - the steps of the stratification pyramid and the ladder of prestige.

Based on the foregoing, it can be concluded that labor activity determines a number of interrelated social and economic phenomena and processes in modern society... The study allows you to identify the most effective ways to manage the organization.

Main categories of labor science

the complexity of labor;
professional suitability of the employee;
the degree of independence of the employee.

The first sign of the content of labor is complexity... It is clear that the work of a scientist is more difficult than that of a turner, and that of a store director is more difficult than that of a cashier. But to justify the measure of remuneration of different types of labor, their comparison is required. To compare complex and simple labor, the concept of "labor reduction" is used. Labor reduction Is the process of reducing complex labor to simple one to determine the measure of remuneration for labor of varying complexity. With the development of society, the share of complex labor increases., which is explained by the increase in the level of technical equipment of enterprises and the requirements for the education of workers.

Differences between complex and simple labor:

performance by the employee of such mental work functions as planning, analysis, control and coordination of actions;
concentration of active thinking and purposeful concentration of the employee;
consistency in making decisions and actions;
accuracy and adequate response of the employee's body to external stimuli;
fast, dexterous and varied labor movements;
responsibility for the results of work.

The second sign of the content of labor is professional suitability... Its influence on the results of labor is due to a person's abilities, the formation and development of his genetic inclinations, a successful choice of profession, conditions for the development and selection of personnel. Special methods for determining professional suitability play an essential role in professional selection.

The third sign of the content of labor is the degree of independence of the employee- depends both on external restrictions associated with the form of ownership, and internal, dictated by the scale and level of complexity of the work. Reducing constraints in decision-making while increasing responsibility means more freedom of action, creativity and the possibility of an informal approach to solving problems. The independence of an employee is a criterion of the level of self-awareness of a developed personality, its measure of responsibility for the results of work.

The nature of work as a category of the science of labor, it represents the relationship between the participants in the labor process, which affect both the employee's attitude to work and labor productivity. From the point of view of the nature of labor, one distinguishes, on the one hand, the work of an entrepreneur and, on the other hand, wage, collective or individual labor. Entrepreneurial labor is distinguished by a high degree of independence in decision-making and its implementation, as well as a high degree of responsibility for results. Wage labor- this is the work of an employee who, under the terms of the agreement, is called upon to fulfill his job duties in relation to the employer.

Modern labor science

Modern labor science includes a number of core disciplines:

traditionally includes the problems of productivity and efficiency of labor, labor resources, labor market and employment, income and wages, planning of the number, problems of labor rationing.
Personnel economics examines the behavior of employees in the performance of their duties. The discipline examines the influence of various factors on labor productivity.
Occupational medicine- examines labor-related factors that can cause injury, illness or other harm to the health of an employee.
Physiology of work explores the functions of the human body in the process of labor: the physiology of the locomotor system, the development and training of labor skills, performance and its regulation, sanitary and hygienic working conditions, the severity of labor.
Work psychology explores the requirements for the human psyche associated with his attitude to work.
Personnel Management studies the problems of planning the number, selection, training and certification of personnel, labor motivation, management styles, relationships in work collectives, management procedures.
Sociology of Labor studies the impact of workers on society and vice versa - society on the worker.
Labor pedagogy how science considers the issues of employee training.
Ergonomics studies the organization of the process of adaptation of the means of labor to the characteristics, capabilities and limits of the human body.
Labor management studies the basics of designing work processes of workplaces. Issues such as identifying the need for personnel, recruiting and selecting personnel, employing employees, releasing them, developing, controlling personnel, i.e. management, coordination and communication work structuring, remuneration policy, participation in success, personnel cost management and employee management.
Safety explores the complex of problems associated with ensuring safe work.
Labor law analyzes the complex of legal aspects of labor and management. This is especially important when hiring and firing, developing reward and punishment systems, solving property problems, and managing social conflicts.

Fundamentals of Modern Labor Economics

Labor economics- studies economic patterns in the field of labor relations, including specific forms of manifestation of the essence of labor, such as organization, pay, efficiency and employment.

Object studying labor economics is labor - an expedient human activity aimed at creating material goods and providing services.

Labor Economics Subject- socio-economic relations that develop in the labor process under the influence of various factors - technical, organizational, personnel and other nature.

The purpose Labor economics are studies in the field of human resource management.

home task economics of labor - the study of the essence and mechanisms of economic processes in the world of work in the context of the life of a person and society.

Ways to improve labor efficiency

One of the most important elements of increasing the efficiency of human labor activity is the improvement of skills and abilities as a result of labor training. From a psychophysical point of view, industrial training is a process of adaptation and a corresponding change in the physiological functions of the human body for the most effective performance of a specific job. As a result of training, muscle strength and endurance increase, the accuracy and speed of working movements increase, and physiological functions are restored faster after the end of work.

Rational organization of the workplace

Rational organization (ensuring a comfortable posture and freedom of labor movements, using equipment that meets the requirements of ergonomics and engineering psychology) provides the most effective, reduces fatigue and prevents the risk of occupational diseases. In addition, the workplace must meet the following requirements: availability of sufficient working space; sufficient physical, auditory and visual connections between human and machine; optimal placement of the workplace in space; permissible level of action of harmful production factors; availability of protective equipment against hazardous production factors.

Comfortable working position

A comfortable working posture of a person in the process of labor activity ensures high efficiency and labor productivity. A comfortable working position should be considered one in which the employee does not need to lean forward more than 10-15 degrees; tilts back and to the sides are undesirable; the main requirement for a working posture is an upright posture.

The formation of a working posture in the "sitting" position is influenced by the height of the working surface, which is determined by the distance from the floor to the horizontal surface on which the labor process takes place. The height of the working surface is set depending on the nature, severity and accuracy of the work. A comfortable working posture when working “sitting” is also ensured by the design of the chair (size, shape, seat area and tilt, height adjustment).

High efficiency and vital functions of the organism are supported by a rational alternation of periods of work and rest.

Rational mode of work and rest

Rational mode of work and rest- this is such a ratio and content of periods of work and rest, in which high labor productivity is combined with high and stable human performance without signs of excessive fatigue for a long time. This alternation of periods of work and rest is observed in different periods of time: during the work shift, day, week, year in accordance with the operating mode of the enterprise.

The duration of rest during the shift (regulated breaks) depends mainly on the severity of the work and the conditions for its implementation. When determining the duration of rest during working hours, it is necessary to take into account the following production factors that cause fatigue: physical effort, nervous tension, pace of work, working position, monotony of work, microclimate, air pollution, air ionic composition of the air, industrial noise, vibration, lighting. Depending on the strength of the influence of each of these factors on the human body, the time for rest is set.

The intrashift work and rest schedule should include a lunch break and short rest breaks, which should be regulated, as it is more effective than breaks that occur irregularly at the discretion of the employee.

Short rest breaks are intended to reduce the fatigue that develops during work.... The number and duration of short breaks is determined based on the nature of the labor process, the degree of intensity and severity of labor. The moments of decreased performance serve as a guideline for establishing the beginning of rest breaks. To prevent its decline, a rest break is prescribed before the onset of fatigue of the body. In the second half of the working day, due to deeper fatigue, the number of rest breaks should be greater than in the first half of the shift. Physiologists have found that for most types of work, the optimal break duration is 5-10 minutes.... It is this break that allows you to restore physiological functions, reduce fatigue and maintain a working mindset. With deep fatigue, it is necessary to go both along the line of increasing the number of breaks and increasing their duration. But short breaks lasting more than 20 minutes violate the already established state of activation.

Rest can be active and passive... Active rest is recommended at work taking place in unfavorable working conditions. The most effective form of active recreation is industrial gymnastics. Active rest accelerates the recovery of strength, since when the activity changes, the energy expended by the working organ is restored faster. As a result of industrial gymnastics, the vital capacity of the lungs increases, the activity of the cardiovascular system improves, muscle strength and endurance increase.

The subject of the discipline labor economics is the study of the labor potential of society, the regularities of the functioning of the labor market, as well as methods of the most rational use of labor resources in the interests of increasing the efficiency of social production and ensuring a decent quality of life.

The subject of the discipline of labor economics is labor resources.

Topic 1. The concept of labor, its role, functions and types

Work- This is an expedient activity of man and society, aimed at preserving and adapting the sphere of living, creating material and cultural values to meet their needs.

Objects of labor- this is all that labor is directed to, that undergoes changes in order to acquire useful properties and thereby satisfy human needs.

Labor tools- this is what a person uses to influence the subject of labor. These include machines, mechanisms, tools, devices, and other tools of labor, as well as buildings and structures that create the necessary conditions for the effective use of these tools.

Means of production- is a set of instruments of labor and objects of labor.

Technology- this is a way of influencing the objects of labor, the procedure for using the tools of labor.

As a result of the completion of the labor process, products of labor .

The main forms of manifestation of labor are:

1) Human energy costs... The psychophysiological side of work, expressed in the expenditure of energy of muscles, brain, nerves and sensory organs. The expenditure of human energy is determined by the severity of labor and the level of neuropsychological tension. They form conditions such as fatigue and fatigue. Human performance and health, as well as his development, depend on the level of expenditure of human energy.

2) Interaction of an employee with the means of production... This is the organizational and technological aspect of work. It is determined by the level of technical equipment of labor, the degree of its mechanization and automation, the perfection of technology, the organization of working time, the qualifications of the worker, his experience, the methods and methods of labor used by him. These parameters of activity represent the requirements for the special training of workers and their qualification level.

3) Industrial interaction of workers with each other, both horizontally (team) and vertically (boss-subordinate). It determines the organizational and economic aspect of labor activity, which depends on the level of labor cooperation, on the number of employees, etc.

The social role of labor manifests itself in the development and improvement of production, has a beneficial effect on the reproduction of the population, an increase in its material and cultural level.

This is an ideal scheme for the impact of labor on individuals and society.

Labor functions:

1) the production of material and spiritual benefits in order to meet personal and social needs;

2) ensuring the safety of human life and society, preserving nature, ensuring a healthy social environment;

3) the formation and accumulation of material and intangible wealth, the development of factors of production, science, technology and culture;

4) the development of the person himself, the formation of a creative personality.

Types of labor:

I. By the nature and content of labor:

1) hired and private;

2) individual and collective;

3) at will, by necessity or by duress;

4) physical and mental;

5) reproductive and creative;

6) by varying degrees of difficulty.

II. By subject and product of labor

1) scientific, engineering, management, production, etc .;

2) industrial, agricultural, transport, communication, etc.

III. By means and methods of work

1) manual (technically unarmed);

2) mechanized;

3) automated (including computerized).

IV. By working conditions

1) stationary and mobile;

2) ground and underground;

3) by severity;

4) attractive and unattractive;

5) free and regulated, and according to the degree of regulation.

Topic 2. Labor potential of society

Labor potential of society- This is the total social ability to work.

Its structure includes:

1) the labor potential of the individual

2) labor potential of the team, enterprise

3) labor potential of the industry

4) labor potential of the region

5) the labor potential of the country, etc.

The qualitative aspect of TVE is characterized by:

1) the state of health of the working-age population, and indicators of its psychophysiological development

2) the professional qualification level of the able-bodied population, i.e. the level of general and vocational education, the presence of certain knowledge, practical experience and skills

3) social and personal characteristics.

The quantitative aspect of TVET It is expressed by the size of the able-bodied population and the resources of working time, i.e. potential fund of working time.

Labor resources- this is a part of the country's population that has the necessary physical development, health, education, culture, abilities, qualifications, professional knowledge to work in the relevant professional field.

The term " socially useful activity»Originated in the 20s of the twentieth century. in order to use it for the needs of the centralized management of the country's human resources.

A person's ability to work, i.e. the set of his properties and characteristics necessary for him to carry out any work activity and used by him in the course of this activity is called labor force .

Sometimes the labor force refers to workers, both real and potential, i.e. the same workforce, which is wrong.

Age boundaries and socio-demographic composition of the labor force are determined by the system of legislative acts of the state.

In Russia, depending on age, the entire population of the country can be divided into 3 groups:

1) persons under the working age (from birth to 15 years inclusive);

2) persons of working age (from 16 to 54 (women) or 59 (men) inclusive);

3) persons over working age who are charged with an old-age pension.

Depending on the ability to work, they distinguish between able-bodied and disabled people. People may be disabled at working age (disabled people of groups 1 and 2), and able to work at disabled age (working adolescents and pensioners).

Thus, according to statistical practice, labor resources are divided into 3 groups:

1) the population of working age, with the exception of persons with disabilities and non-working persons receiving pensions on preferential terms

2) employed persons of retirement age

3) working adolescents under the age of 16.

According to Russian law, adolescents under 16 years of age are hired in exceptional cases, and only after they reach 15 years of age. It is also allowed, in order to prepare young people for work, the recruitment of students of general education schools, vocational and secondary technical educational institutions, upon reaching the age of 14, with the consent of one of the parents, provided that they are provided with easy work that does not harm their health, and does not interfere with the learning process.

Labor resources are reproduced under the influence of the demographic situation, which is extremely unfavorable in Russia, and is characterized by the following phenomena:

1) extremely low fertility

2) high mortality rate of the population

3) natural population decline

4) a very high mortality rate for men of working age

5) low indicators of life expectancy of the population, and a very large difference between them for men and women

6) aging population

Also, the number of labor resources is influenced by work migration... This is the process of moving the able-bodied population in order to find or change jobs across the borders of certain territories with a permanent change or for a more or less long time of permanent residence, or with a regular return to it.

The high mortality rate in Russia is due to the following reasons:

1) alcohol abuse, use of tobacco and narcotic products

2) high crime rate

3) low level of road safety

4) low level of labor protection, severe wear and tear of equipment and structures

5) low standard of living of the population

6) poor quality of medical care

7) unfavorable economic environment

Formation of labor resources occurs under the influence of the state, which, with the help of social policy, regulates the processes of reproduction and migration of labor resources, changes their quantitative and qualitative composition.

The main ways of forming labor resources are:

1) moral and material stimulation of the birth rate, protection of motherhood and childhood, support of the institution of the family

2) implementation of measures to reduce mortality

3) regulation of the number and structure of graduates of vocational education institutions

4) regulation of migration flows.

The following factors influence the quality of professional training of workers:

1) professional selection

2) the state of the material and technical base of training

3) programs and teaching methods

4) information support of the learning process

5) quality of teaching staff

6) financial security

7) the quality of the trained workers, their motivation and stimulation

8) acquisition of practical skills and adaptation to real working conditions

9) competition in the labor market

10) socio-psychological climate in the team.

Topic 3. The main indicators of the number and movement

labor resources

The population is constantly changing due to the birth rate, mortality rate, as well as migration processes, therefore, the population is recorded in settlements, as of a certain date. When accounting for the population on a certain date, the following 4 categories of the population are distinguished within each settlement:

1) permanent population- this is the population that permanently resides in this locality, regardless of its actual stay on the date of registration;

2) available population- this is the population that is actually in the given territory on the date of registration, regardless of its permanent place of residence;

3) temporarily resident population- this is the population that is located in a given territory on the date of registration, but permanently resides in another place;

4) temporarily absent population- one that is temporarily absent at the date of registration, but permanently resides in this territory

Permanent population = 2 - 3 + 4

Available population = 1 + 3 - 4

To calculate many indicators, you need to know average annual population... This indicator, depending on the initial information, can be determined in several ways:

1) if there are data on the population at the beginning and end of the period, then the formula is used arithmetic mean simple :

Where S is the population size

2) if there are data on the population size for dates at regular intervals, then the formula is used average chronological :

3) if the population size is known for dates at different intervals, then the formula is used weighted arithmetic mean, in which the weights will be the intervals between the dates:

Where t is the interval between dates

By studying the dynamics of the population, the population growth is statistically established. Absolute growth:, where is the population size, and is the number at the beginning. Relative gain is also counted.

Population movement indicators

Population change is influenced by 2 factors:

1) natural movement of the population

2) mechanical movement of the population

The total population growth is equal to:

Natural movement of the population Is the replacement of outgoing generations with new ones. If we denote the number of births during the period - P, deaths - Y, then

Absolute natural growth : .

Relative indicators are determined per thousand of the population:

If it is equal to one, then it is simple reproduction of the population, if it is more than one, then it is expanded reproduction of the population if less - then this is narrowed reproduction of the population.

Indicators of mechanical movement of the population

To study the mechanical movement of the population, the following indicators are used in statistics: (if P is the number of arrivals, and V is the number of departures)

Absolute mechanical gain : ;

Relative indicators:

A detailed description of mortality and survival rates is given by mortality tables. This is a system of calculated indicators that reveal how the size of one population decreases with increasing age and under the influence of mortality. This system characterizes the age-specific mortality rate, survival rate, and average life expectancy.

Mortality tables show the order of extinction of persons born at the same time in different age groups, provided that the mortality rates that were at the time of compilation of this table were preserved throughout the life of the studied generation.

Since mortality in different age groups is constantly changing due to changing living conditions, it becomes necessary to compile new mortality tables. Life expectancy is calculated based on life tables.

Calculation of the prospective population size

1. Global Method

If absolute population growth is known:

Where t is time and Δ is increment

If there is relative data:

2. Method of moving ages

For prospective calculations of the population using this method, it is necessary to have data on its sex and age structure, as well as the survival rate.

S - population size in the corresponding period. P is the survival rate, that is, the probability of survival of the population of age x to age (x + 1).

Topic 4. Economic activity of the population. Employment. Unemployment

Since mid-93, our country has made a transition to the population classification system recommended by the International Labor Organization, where it is divided into economically active and economically inactive population.

Economically active population- this is a part of the population that provides the supply of labor for the production of goods, works, services. It includes persons of working age (and according to international standards, it is from 15 to 72) who are employed or unemployed.

The most important factors in the economic activity of the population are:

The amount of wealth accumulated in the country
Long-term demand for labor

The greater the amount of wealth accumulated in the country, the greater part of the country's population has incomes that are not labor and at the same time are sufficient to ensure prosperity. This kind of income allows a significant part of the population not to be economically active, but to engage in their own education, raising children, etc.

The less is 1, the more part of the working-age population is forced to work in the economy. For example, Saudi Arabia, where the proportion of millionaires is high and the level of economic activity is low.

In the short term, fluctuations in demand have little effect on the level of economic activity of the population. They only change the ratio of employed and unemployed in the economically active population.

However, in the long run, the demand for labor is the most important factor, since it ultimately determines the number of people employed.

If the demand for labor is low in the country, then a significant part of the population cannot get a job and eventually falls into the category of those desperate to find a job that is not included in the economically active population.

Employment- the activity of the able-bodied population associated with the production of material and spiritual benefits in order to meet personal and social needs, bringing earnings and is not an activity against the law.

Citizens are employed:

Those who work under an employment contract (contract), including those who perform paid work on a part-time basis, who have paid work in kind, seasonal and temporary work, with the exception of community service;
Entrepreneurs;
Those employed in subsidiary trades (fishing, cutting spoons from wood) and those who independently sell their products;
Performing work under civil labor contracts. The subject of which is the performance of work or the provision of services (also under copyright agreements);
Elected, appointed or approved for a paid position;
Passing military or alternative civilian service, as well as service in the internal affairs bodies, as well as in the fire service;
Undergoing full-time training in educational institutions, including training in the direction of the employment service;
Temporarily absent from the workplace, because they are disabled, on vacation, in retraining, advanced training, on strike, called up for military training, involvement in activities related to preparation for military or civil service or other valid reasons;
Are the founders of the organization, with the exception of the founders of public and religious organizations, associations, charitable and other foundations, associations of a legal entity that does not have property rights in relation to these organizations;
Doing work without pay in family businesses.

Employment characteristics:

Full
Rational
Productive
Effective

At full employment all willing able-bodied citizens can have a paid job (natural unemployment persists).

Rational employment- a kind of complete, assuming a qualitative correspondence between workers and the jobs they occupy.

Productive employment Is employment in social production.

Effective employment- such use of labor resources, which achieves the maximum mathematical result and social effect with minimum labor and social costs.

Forms of employment- organizational and legal conditions for the use of labor.

Classification attribute	Employment form
1) Form of ownership of the means of production	Labor for hire Entrepreneurship Self-employment
2) Place of work	Employment in an enterprise, firm, at home, on an expedition, etc.
3) Regularity of work	Constant Temporary Seasonal Episodic
4) Mode of operation	Employment with a tight schedule, flexible, etc.
5) Legitimacy of employment	Formal Informal
6) Activity status	The main Additional

Unemployment- a socio-economic phenomenon when a part of the economically active population that wants to work and is looking for work, but cannot find a job.

Unemployed- someone who is currently unemployed is looking for it and is ready to start it.

Pupils, students, retirees and people with disabilities can be counted as unemployed if they are looking for work and are ready to start immediately.

Unemployment happens: explicit, hidden, natural, long-term, stagnant, structural, cyclical, voluntary, institutional, frictional.

Explicit- is registered by the employment service.

Hidden- unregistered.

Natural- the totality of those forms of unemployment, which are unavoidable and always exist. It allows the economy to develop at the expense of a pool of potential workers.

Long- from 8 to 18 months.

Stagnant- lasting over 18 months. This type of unemployment leads the unemployed to complete professional degradation due to the prolonged absence of repetition of technological processes and techniques. Professional degradation leads to social degradation.

Structural- unemployment associated with the period of job search, their specialty or qualifications do not allow them to quickly find their job. It is due to the mismatch between supply and demand for labor.

Cyclic- unemployment associated with business cycles.

Institutional- unemployment due to legal norms, the state of the labor market and factors affecting the demand and supply of labor. Example: the presence of excessive social payments that cause a decrease in the supply of labor. It can be caused by a change in the minimum wage or the tax system.

Friction- unemployment due to voluntary dismissal in order to find a new, more suitable job. Short term.

In any society there is a stratum of people who, for their psychological makeup or for other reasons, do not want to work - voluntary unemployment.

The main economic consequences of unemployment are:

Decrease in total social production (GDP)
Decrease in incomes of the population and their standard of living. Decreased funding for social and development programs
Strengthening social tension in society, narrowing the possibilities for a person's free choice of work
The loss of their professional qualifications by the unemployed, hence the degradation of personality, antisocial behavior

But unemployment has an important positive stimulating function. The threat of unemployment encourages workers to work more efficiently and conscientiously. Unemployment is an incentive to improve qualifications and increases the demand for training. The population of working age (15-72 years), which does not belong to the unemployed, not to the employed - the economically inactive population - pensioners and disabled people, people employed in housekeeping, caring for children, sick relatives, etc.

Persons desperate to find a job- these are persons who have stopped looking for it, having exhausted all the possibilities, but who are willing and ready to start work. There are also people who are not ready to start work, but perhaps want and are looking for work.

Main factors

In order to promote full productive and effective employment of the population, the state implements a policy of employment of the population, with the help of which it influences the demand and supply of labor.

Key policy statements:

1. Preservation and creation of jobs at existing enterprises;

2. Creation of new jobs based on the development of production;

3. Organization of public works;

4. Creation of jobs for persons with disabilities, use of labor potential;

5. Training, retraining, advanced training of employees;

6. Development of self-employment;

7. Regulation of working hours;

8. Regulation of migration processes;

An important role in the regulation of employment and unemployment is played by employment service (SZN) , whose functions :

1. Analysis and programming of demand for labor, informing the population and employers about jobs;

2. Accounting for jobs and citizens applying for employment;

3. To provide assistance to the population in the selection of work, and to employers in the selection of workers;

4. Professional consulting for laid off workers and unemployed population;

5. Organization of vocational training, retraining, advanced training of the unemployed in the system of the employment service;

6. Participation in the preparation and implementation of employment programs, in solving world problems related to employment;

7. Registration of the unemployed and assistance to them, including the payment of benefits

8. Organization of public works;

9. Monitoring compliance with labor legislation.

The procedure and conditions for recognizing citizens as unemployed in Russia

The decision to recognize a registered citizen as unemployed in order to find a suitable job is made by the employment service (SZN) at the citizen's place of residence no later than 11 days from the day the SZN body presents the necessary documents (passport, work record, certificate from the last place of work, document education, etc.).

If the SZN authorities cannot provide suitable work to citizens within 10 days from the date of submission of the necessary documents, they are recognized as unemployed from the first day of submission of these documents.

The following citizens cannot be recognized as unemployed:

1.Persons under the age of 16;

2. retirees;

3. those who refused, within 10 days from the date of their registration, from two options for suitable work, including work of a temporary nature, and not having a profession, specialty - in the case of two refusals to receive vocational training;

4. who did not appear without good reason during these 10 days to the SZN authorities to offer them a suitable job, or who did not appear for registration on the last day;

5. convicted by a court decision to correctional labor without imprisonment, as well as to punishment in the form of imprisonment;

6. submitted documents containing false information about the lack of work, earnings, etc.

Citizens who have been denied recognition as unemployed in accordance with the established procedure have the right to reapply to the SZN authorities no earlier than one month from the date of refusal.

The amount of unemployment benefits is differentiated depending on the categories of citizens recognized as unemployed and the duration of unemployment in accordance with the law of the Russian Federation of April 19, 1991, No. 1032-1 "on employment in the Russian Federation" and the Labor Code of the Russian Federation.

The period for the payment of unemployment benefits cannot exceed 12 months, but if citizens are not employed after this period, they are entitled to re-receive unemployment benefits.

Unemployment benefits to citizens dismissed from organizations for any reason during the 12 months preceding the onset of unemployment and who had paid work during this period are charged:

in the first twelve month period:

In the first 3 months of unemployment - in the amount of 75% of their average monthly earnings, calculated over the last 3 months at the last place of work.

In the next 4 months - 60% of the same

Further - in the amount of 45%

But in all cases - not higher than the maximum value and not lower than the minimum value of unemployment benefits, increased by the size of the regional coefficient, if any.

in the second payment period:

In the amount of the minimum amount of unemployment benefits, increased by the size of the regional coefficient.

The maximum and minimum amounts of unemployment benefits are determined annually by the Government of the Russian Federation.

Topic 5. Labor market

Labor market Is a system of socio-economic relations between employers, workers and the state regarding the entire complex of conditions that ensure the reproduction of the labor system. It includes: the labor market and the job market. The price in this market is wages.

Features of the labor market:

1. The specificity of the product that is sold on this market is the ability, skills, experience, qualifications, talents, with the help of which a person can produce any product, perform any work, or provide any services;

2. In this market, the price of goods does not always play a leading role. Since an employee spends a fairly large amount of time at work, non-monetary factors are also very important for him: work safety, working conditions, work schedule, training and professional growth opportunities, relationships with colleagues and bosses, social guarantees, etc. Often these factors turn out to be much more important for a person than wages. In addition, work determines the social status of a person, and this is also often more important than wages;

3. Demand in this market is derived from the demand for goods, works, services, because labor, unlike ordinary goods, is bought not for the satisfaction of the consumer, but in order to produce any product, perform any work, provide any -or services;

4. The labor market is characterized by imperfect information, since no formal data, diplomas and recommendations can unambiguously characterize a potential employee. In the same way, a person can evaluate a proposed job only after working for some time;

5. A significant and growing role of institutional factors, since in democracies great attention is paid to the formation and constant revision of labor legislation. For example: working age, minimum wage, work and rest regimes, labor safety standards, maximum working hours, etc. In addition, trade unions have a significant impact on the labor market, especially in certain industries.

Labor market functions:

1. Ensuring a meeting and agreement between the subjects of the labor market;

2. Guarantees in ensuring competition in the labor market;

3. Establishment of effective rates of wages;

4. Ensuring employment of the population

The main components of the aggregate labor market are: the aggregate supply of labor, covering all labor resources and the aggregate demand for labor, as a general need in the economy for labor resources. They constitute the capacity of the aggregate labor market.

SS - aggregate demand for labor SP - aggregate supply

SS U SP = CPT - the aggregate labor market

SS ∩ SP = US - satisfied labor demand

The current labor market is formed by the movement of labor resources and jobs, and it consists of two elements: open labor market(all officially registered unemployed and all vacant jobs) and hidden labor market(persons formally employed in the economy, but looking for a job).

The modern labor market is dual, since there are two labor markets that are not competing with each other, i.e. two segments of the single labor market.

Labor market segmentation- division of workers and jobs into stable closed sectors that limit the mobility of labor resources by their borders. The segments of the labor market are the primary and secondary labor markets.

Primary labor market Is a market characterized by a stable level of employment and a high level of wages. It covers the workplaces of specialists with education, managers of all levels, highly qualified workers.

Secondary labor market- characterized by high staff turnover, precarious employment, low wages. It covers jobs that do not require special training and significant qualifications, which are usually occupied by maintenance workers.

The main features of the primary and secondary labor markets.

Peculiarities	Primary RT	Secondary RT
1. The level of remuneration	High	Short
2. The most important salary-forming factors	Position, experience, qualifications, degree of responsibility	Development and discipline
3. The specifics of the remuneration system	High share of lump sum payments, individual nature of remuneration	The leading role of basic wages and the collective form of remuneration
4. Content of labor	Creative and highly skilled work	Performing and routine work
5. Working conditions	Good ones	Bad
6. Degree of responsibility for the results of labor	High	Low
7. Union support	Big	Weak
8. Nature of employment	Stable	Unstable
9. Duration of employment contracts	Long term	Short term
10. Development of labor rationing	Low	High
11. Degree of social protection	High	Low
12. The volume of investments in education and prof. training	Big	Small
13. Opportunities for career advancement	Wide	Limited
14. Degree of employee participation in management	High	Low

You can also highlight the internal and external labor markets.

Internal labor market Is a system of social and labor relations, limited by the framework of one enterprise.

External labor market Is a system of social and labor relations between employers and employees on the scale of an industry, region, country, etc.

Labor demand and labor supply graph:

A very important indicator in assessing the demand for labor is its elasticity with respect to wages, or “ intrinsic elasticity of labor demand". The coefficient of elasticity shows how much the demand for labor changes when wages change by one percent.

Since with an increase in the wage rate, the required amount of labor always decreases, and, conversely, with a fall in the level of wages, it grows, it is obvious that the coefficient of elasticity of demand for labor will always be negative. OH takes values from zero (in this case, the demand for labor in terms of wages is absolutely inelastic, and the graph of the labor demand function looks like a vertical line) to minus infinity (in this case, the demand will be absolutely elastic, and looks like a horizontal line).

Elastic demand:; ;

Inelastic demand:; ;

Unit elasticity demand;

The lower the wage elasticity of demand for labor, the steeper the slope of the curve

The formula (*) allows you to calculate point elasticity of labor demand on wages, which is the elasticity at one point on the labor demand curve, however, for each point on the labor demand curve, the point elasticity coefficient is different and will change as we move along the labor demand curve. Therefore, when there are relatively large changes in wages, then use arc elasticity of labor demand on wages. Arc elasticity is calculated by the formula:

The arc elasticity of demand for labor in terms of wages is a more accurate indicator, since it allows us to analyze the response of demand to labor as a result of changes in the level of wages.

The main factors that determine the value of the wage elasticity of demand for labor are formulated in four laws of Hicks-Marshal(British economist Alfred Marshall substantiated these dependencies in 1890 in Principles of Economics, and his compatriot John Hicks clarified the wording of one of the laws in his book The Theory of Wages). The activities of modern trade unions are based on these laws.

Law one... The wage elasticity of the demand for labor will be, all other things being equal, the greater the more elastic the demand for the final product. With a high elasticity of demand for the final product, the consumer reacts with a significant increase in demand to reduce its price, i.e. a decrease in wages and, consequently, production costs, causing a drop in prices for final products, will cause an increase in consumer demand, and hence an expansion of output. The result will be an increase in employment.

Second law... All other things being equal, the elasticity of demand for labor will be the greater, the higher the elasticity of substitution of labor by capital. An increase in wages will entail the dismissal of workers if they are easy to replace with machines, and vice versa - if such a technological opportunity is absent, then workers can fearlessly demand an increase in wages, since they are irreplaceable.

Law three... The greater is the share of labor costs in total production costs. For example, the same change in wage rates will cause unequal growth in production costs in different industries and spheres of activity. Where wages make up a significant share of costs, prices will rise markedly. As a result, the demand for products will decrease, producers will reduce output, and the employment of workers will decrease, and vice versa.

Fourth law... The elasticity of demand for labor in terms of wages will be, other things being equal, the greater the higher the elasticity of supply of other factors of production, primarily capital. How much more will it cost to employers? additional machines and equipment if they decide to replace workers with capital? Employers seeking to replace human labor with machines will dramatically increase the demand for capital. When the supply of capital is highly elastic, then producers will be able to buy the required amount of machinery and equipment at a price slightly higher than the previous one, and replace the labor that has risen in price with them. It is beneficial for them, since the salary has increased, and the price of capital is practically nonexistent. Conversely, if the supply of capital is low elastic, then even a slight increase in demand for it will lead to a sharp increase in prices. In such a situation, the employer would prefer to slightly increase wages rather than substitute capital for labor.

In addition to the coefficient of self-elasticity of demand for labor, that is, the demand for labor in terms of wages, economic research also widely uses indicators cross elasticity of labor demand. First of all, the elasticity of demand for labor at the price of capital, which we can calculate:

where K is the price of capital and L is the demand for labor.

This coefficient shows how sensitive the demand for labor is to the price of another factor of production - capital. Unlike the coefficient of self-elasticity of demand for labor, the coefficient of cross-elasticity can take both negative and positive values.

The result will depend on whether labor and capital in a given production are complementary or substituting factors, that is, complementary factors or substitute factors.

Typically, capital and low-skilled labor are substitute factors, while high-skill labor usually complements capital. For example, the work of doctors is impossible to replace with technology, but technology complements it.

Substitutes - complements

The labor supply in the labor market is formed under the influence of many factors:

The starting point in this process is the population size, which depends on the current demographic situation.

Since not the entire population is able or willing to work, the economically active population is much smaller than the total population. In addition, some workers are willing to work full-time and some only part-time. As a result, given the same size of the economically active population, the total number of labor hours offered on the market turns out to be different.

Also, the same amount of labor, measured in man-hours, can bring absolutely different results, depending on its quality. As a result, there is a certain level of labor supply in the market with certain quantitative and qualitative characteristics of labor resources.

The theory of labor supply is based on one simple idea: all people on earth are independent of gender, age, education, income, and other things, are equal in one thing - each of them has only 24 hours in a day. That is, the resources of time are the same for everyone, and each person distributes these 24 hours in his own way between work and leisure.

Under labor any work for a fee is understood.

At leisure means all the rest of the time that a person can spend on sleep, food, travel, entertainment, hobbies, education, working with children, housework, gardening, building their own house, that is, everything that is not paid for either in money or in kind ...

Therefore, in order to assess the individual labor supply, it is necessary first to find out what demand for leisure is presented by a person, and then subtract the hours of leisure from 24 hours. Each person has two sources of satisfaction of his many needs - money and time. The relationship between the level of monetary income and the number of hours of leisure (or work) can be graphically depicted as follows:

Where Y is the person's income, l is the hours of leisure, L is the hours of work.

The individual labor supply of a person, that is, the number of hours of work offered to him, is formed depending on his salary, and on the level of his unearned income. Under the influence of two effects acting simultaneously in opposite directions - the income effect and the substitution effect. The income effect is the reaction of the individual supply of human labor to the growth of his income, provided that the level of wages remains unchanged. An increase in wages, other things being equal, increases a person's income.

If we assume that the total (not only labor) income has increased, and the level of wages has remained unchanged, then the income effect will always be negative, that is, the supply of labor will decrease.

The income effect is :

Where is the change in the individual labor supply, is the change in a person's income, Z is the level of wages, it is unchanged.

With the growth of income, the demand for leisure will always grow, which means that the supply of labor will decrease. In life, the income effect can be observed, for example, if a person begins to receive some kind of benefit, or income from property that is not related to work, and the level of his wages does not change. With an increase in the unearned component of income, a person can purchase more goods and services, and at the same time have more rest. But since the time limit does not depend on income, he will reduce the supply of his labor. However, with an increase in wages, the net income effect is not observed. Income grows simultaneously with the level of wages, and the level of wages is the price of leisure. This means that although a person becomes richer, his leisure time becomes more expensive for him. And then there is a tendency to replace the more expensive leisure with work. This is how the substitution effect arises.

Substitution effect - This is the reaction of the individual supply of human labor to the growth of his wages, provided that the level of income remains unchanged. It will always be positive. The salary increases, therefore, the supply increases. It is considered similar to the income effect:

Where is the change in the level of wages, and Y is the fixed level of income.

In its pure form, the substitution effect is rarely observed. For example, a woman sits with a child, and at the same time earns money. She has an allowance and a salary. Wages start to rise and benefits continue to rise. The total income does not change, although the salary is increasing. Hence, it will work harder. That is, she will replace her rest with work. The labor supply will increase.

Topic 6. Human and social capital

Human capital

Human capital Is a system of personal qualities of an employee that affect his productivity, that is, the ability to create healthy foods(or services) - goods. This term received recognition and widespread use in economics after the publication in 1964 of the book of the same name by Gary Becker "Human Capital".

Similarities between human and physical capital:

1) it serves as a means of production of goods, and is characterized by some productivity;

2) it serves as a means of generating income for its owner, and is characterized by some profitability;

3) it can be quantified;

4) it can be increased by investing.

Differences between human and physical capital:

1) human capital is inseparable from its carrier, and cannot be alienated, therefore it is illiquid;

2) due to absolute non-liquidity, it does not have a market price;

3) in modern society, an investor investing in the human capital of another person does not have ownership of this asset;

4) The lifespan of human capital coincides with the lifespan of its bearer or owner;

5) Human capital ensures the production of goods only in the process of labor activity of the bearer himself, the owner of this capital;

6) The process of changing the production qualities of human capital over time has a specific character, which is determined by two oppositely directed factors. On the one hand, with an increase in a person's age, physical strength decreases and health deteriorates. As a result, human capital wears out. But on the other hand, during life and in the process of labor activity, a person acquires new knowledge, skills and abilities, as a result of which, human capital increases.

The components of human capital are

education, health and morality.

Education Is the ability of a person to perform higher activities, to carry out certain labor functions. A person acquires education in the family, in educational institutions, at work, in the process of social interactions with other people, and can also acquire it during leisure. A person's education also depends on his natural intelligence, which is of a genetic nature and cannot be obtained as a result of training and investment. The income due to the natural mental abilities of a person is called intellectual rent .

Health Is the ability of the human body to carry out normal life activities. It depends on the natural physiological qualities of a person, living environment, lifestyle, quality of medical care, and so on.

Moral Is the ability and willingness of a person to comply with social norms of behavior based on values such as honor, goodness, justice, and so on. A public assessment of a person's moral qualities, obtained on the basis of an analysis of his behavior, is called reputation... Income due to a person's high reputation is called reputation rent .

The main types of human capital are general human capital and special (specific) human capital.

Total human capital Is the knowledge and skills of an employee that can be used on a large number enterprises. The specialty acquired by a person also belongs to the general human capital, since any specialty is in demand on the part of many enterprises. And the employee can choose the place for the application of his knowledge and skills.

Investments in total human capital consist of tuition fees, textbook costs, and so on. This also includes the opportunity cost of the time spent on training, that is, the income not earned during this time.

The simplest condition for the profitability of investment in education can be formulated as follows:

That is, the annual increase in a person's salary must exceed this value. For example, the cost of studying at a university is 600 thousand rubles, and the interest rate is 7%. According to the above formula, it will be beneficial to enroll in this university if, after graduation, the annual increase in wages is at least 42 thousand rubles.

Special human capital Is the knowledge and skills of a person that can be used only in one enterprise. The employee acquires special human capital directly at this enterprise, in the process of labor activity, or as a result of special training. After a person is dismissed from this job, special human capital ceases to be a factor in his productivity.

Investments in the special human capital of an employee are made up of the investments of the enterprise and the investments of the employee himself.

An enterprise's investment in dedicated human capital may include the costs of training and onboarding an employee, as well as the damage associated with low productivity during training and experience. An employee's investment in his or her special human capital is associated with lower wages during the period of special education.

Geometric interpretation of special human capital:

OT - the total length of service of the employee

- employee experience required to achieve average productivity and average salary.

Investment of the enterprise (IE) in the employee's SCH = CEQ

Employee Investment (FROM) = ACQ

Enterprise income (DP) = QDF

Employee Income (DR) = QBD

Net income of the enterprise = DP - IP. If this difference is positive, then the dismissal of the employee will not cause damage to the company.

The employee's net income = DR - IE ,. If this difference is positive, then the dismissal of the employee will not entail damage to him. In the case when an employee leaves, with the length of service at the enterprise is less than the value, then both the employee and the enterprise lose all investments in the special human capital of this employee.

The main methods for measuring human capital are:

1) investment

2) natural

3) financial

4) temporary

5) natural-temporal.

Social capital

In the modern economy, the dominant type of labor is information labor, and the dominant type of product is the information product.

Social capital Is a system of stable social interactions of a person that affect his productivity.

Social capital can be inherited and acquired.

Inherited social capital is a family relationship that often affects a person's ability to engage in information work.

The acquired social capital is created as a result of a person's own efforts and as a result of investments. The most important factors in the acquired social capital are business ties and professional contacts.

The creation of social capital is facilitated by such human qualities as communication skills, honesty, kindness, etc. An example of investment in social capital is the costs of a person associated with his entry into any social group, and with the maintenance of any social interactions. For example, gifts, receptions, etc.

Common features of social and human capital:

1) they serve as a means of obtaining benefits;

2) they serve as a means of generating income;

3) they can be increased as a result of investments;

4) they are inseparable from their carrier, that is, they are absolutely illiquid;

5) they do not have a market price;

6) their service life is the same

Differences between social capital and human capital:

1) a person's social capital does not directly depend on his personal qualities, that is, a person with mediocre abilities can have high productivity through the use of his existing connections and contacts;

2) social capital can provide income to its owner without any labor efforts on his part;

The main methods of measuring social capital are cost and time.

Basic methods for measuring human capital

Investment method

The value of human capital is taken equal to the sum of investments in education and human health, as well as other costs that increase its productivity. This method is based on the assumption that a person's productivity is proportional to the amount of investment in his human capital. But this assumption is not realistic.

First, any investment process is subject to the law of diminishing returns. In addition, for each person there is a threshold volume of investment, starting from which the value of human capital no longer grows. Thus, with an increase in investment in human capital, the worker's productivity function first increases and then becomes constant.

Secondly, people differ significantly in their natural qualities, therefore, the dependence of productivity on investment in human capital is individual in nature.

Natural method

With the natural method, the value of human capital is taken equal to the total duration of a person's education. Its main drawback is that it takes into account only one component of human capital - education. The assumption that, other things being equal, a person's productivity is proportional to the duration of his education is also not entirely realistic.

First, due to the difference in the natural mental abilities of people, an additional year of education will provide a greater increase in productivity for a more capable person compared to a less capable one.

Secondly, this method does not take into account that different educational institutions of the same level and profile provide their graduates with a different quality of education.

Financial method

With the financial method, the value of human capital is estimated as the stream of income received by a person as a result of using his human capital. This method takes into account the level of education of the person, and the level of his health. The longer the duration of education, and the better the health, the higher the amount of income earned over a lifetime.

Natural-time method

With the natural-time method, the value of human capital is equal to the product of the level of education of life and the duration of its life.

Methods for measuring social capital

With the cost method, the value of human capital is estimated as the amount of reduction in a person's income due to the destruction of his social ties.

With the temporary method, the value of social capital is estimated as the amount of reduction in a person's labor activity, due to the destruction of his social ties.

Topic 7. Labor productivity and labor intensity of products

Labor productivity is a generalizing indicator of its effectiveness. It characterizes the volume of output, or work performed, services rendered, per unit of labor input.

Distinguish between the productivity of individual labor of an individual worker, labor productivity within the enterprise, labor productivity across the industry, region, country, etc.

Direct labor of people is called live labor... But at each stage of production, only part of the costs acts as living labor. And another part of them is represented by means of production, that is, raw materials, energy, instruments of labor, premises, etc. This part of the work is called materialized(or past) labor .

Labor productivity can rise or fall, depending on various factors. The growth of labor productivity is an indispensable condition for the development of production, regardless of the dominant economic system.

The increase in labor productivity lies in the fact that the share of living labor costs decreases, while the share of past labor costs increases. At the same time, the total amount of labor costs contained in each unit of the product decreases.

The level of labor productivity is influenced by the size of the extensive use of labor, the intensity of labor, as well as the technical and technological state of production.

Extensive labor characteristics reflects the degree of use of working time and its duration per shift, with the constancy of other characteristics. The more fully working time is used, the less downtime, wasted time, and the longer the work shift, the higher labor productivity.

But this characteristic has boundaries, namely, the legislatively established productivity of the working day and working week. If during this time the working time is completely used for productive labor, then this will be the limit of the possible value of the extensive use of labor.

Labor intensity characterizes the degree of its tension per unit of time, and is measured by the amount of human energy spent on this time. The higher the intensity of labor, the higher its productivity. The maximum level of intensity is determined by the physiological and mental capabilities of the human body. This means that the intensity of labor has physiological limits and cannot be unlimited. Normal work presupposes its normal intensity. That is, such a consumption of vital energy during the working time per shift, which, given the current health care system, the really affordable quality of nutrition, and the rational use of free time from work, are the necessary conditions for the full development of the body and full restoration of working capacity by the beginning of a new shift.

The source of growth in labor productivity, which has no limits, is scientific and technological progress, technical and technological improvement of production, the emergence of new materials, types of energy, and so on.

The growth of labor productivity at enterprises is manifested in the form:

1) an increase in the mass of products created per unit of time, with its quality unchanged;

2) improving the quality of products, with a constant mass, created per unit of time;

3) reduction of labor costs per unit of production;

4) a change in the ratio of the costs of living and past labor towards an increase in the share of costs of past labor;

5) reduction of production time;

6) increase in mass and rate of return

The main indicators of labor productivity are production and labor intensity. They are the opposite of each other.

W - production

Q is the volume of products, works, services produced

T is labor input

t - labor intensity

The volume of production Q can be measured in natural units (pieces, tons, meters, liters, etc.), in conventional natural units (in standard hours), and in monetary units. T - labor costs, can be measured in man-hours, man-days, as well as in the number of personnel. Depending on this, the output will be in natural units, etc.

Varieties of performance indicators

Depending on the level of the economic system, according to which the indicator is calculated, production is distinguished:

1) individual (individual employee);

2) local (at the level of a shop, enterprise, industry);

3) public (at the level of the national economy as a whole)

Depending on the unit of measurement of working time, output can be:

1) hourly;

2) daytime;

3) for a month, for a quarter, for a year, etc.

Depending on the methods of measuring production volumes, production is distinguished:

1) natural;

2) conditionally natural;

3) labor;

4) cost.

Features of calculating performance indicators (levels of labor productivity) in certain sectors of the national economy.

In industry, the main indicator of the level of labor productivity is the gross output in comparable prices per worker.

In construction, labor productivity characterizes the indicator of the average output of construction and installation work, per employee. And on individual construction works, labor productivity is measured in physical terms or the labor intensity of a unit of work performed in man-days or in man-hours is calculated.

V agriculture labor productivity is determined by dividing gross output in comparable prices by the average annual number of employees. In addition, the gross output per man-hour worked in crop or livestock production is calculated.

In trade and public catering, labor productivity is determined by dividing the turnover by the number of employees (or by time, depending on how we measure labor costs).

Varieties of labor intensity

By the nature of labor costs, the following types of labor intensity are distinguished:

1. Standard labor intensity(how much labor should ideally be spent on the production of something)

It is calculated based on current labor standards

Time norms

Production standards

Service time norms

Population norms

2. Planned labor intensity(almost like the normative, but we can plan the norms taking into account some time losses, or, conversely, taking into account the planned activities to increase productivity).

3. Actual labor intensity(how much was spent, released, etc.)

Depending on the composition of labor costs:

1. Technological labor intensity... It is determined by the labor costs of the main workers directly involved in the manufacture of products.

2. Labor intensity of service... It represents the labor costs of auxiliary workers in the main shops, and all workers in auxiliary shops and departments engaged in services.

3. Production labor intensity... It consists of the two previous ones.

4. Labor intensity of management... It consists of the labor costs of managers, specialists and employees.

5. Total labor intensity... The sum of all labor inputs.

Statistical study of the dynamics of labor productivity

It is done using the index method. The individual production index is considered to be the division of the next production index by the previous one. The individual index of labor intensity is considered as the quotient of the previous one to the next.

Composite indices:

- labor costs during the accounting period, or the number of employees

2. Labor index

The difference between the numerator and denominator of this fraction shows us the savings or cost overruns due to changes in labor productivity.

Decomposition of the increase in production by factors

Factors and reserves of labor productivity growth

The great importance that the growth of labor productivity for individual enterprises and the whole of society has makes it necessary to study all the factors affecting the level of labor productivity and finding reserves for its growth.

There are 5 groups of factors:

I. Material and technical factors

They are associated with the use of new technology, advanced technologies, new types of raw materials and materials. The following tasks are being solved to improve labor productivity: modernization of equipment, increasing the level of mechanization of production, etc.

The complex of these factors and their influence on the level of labor productivity can be characterized following indicators :

1) the power-to-labor ratio is the consumption of all types of energy per worker;

2) the technical equipment of labor is the volume of fixed assets per employee;

3) the level of mechanization and automation is the proportion of workers engaged in mechanized and automated labor, respectively;

4) chemicalization of production is the ratio of chemicalized production processes in its total volume.

One of the main material and technical factors is to improve the quality of products, because high-quality products replace more low-quality products, and increasing the durability of products is tantamount to an additional increase in their output. Material and technical factors are the most important, since they provide savings not only in living, but also in materialized labor (past).

II. Socio-economic factors

They are determined by the qualitative characteristics of labor collectives, their socio-demographic composition, levels of training, discipline, labor activity and creative initiative of workers, and the style of management at the enterprise.

III. Organizational factors

They are determined by the level of organization of labor, production and management.

These include:

1) improving the organization of management

Improving the structure of the management apparatus

Improving the management system

Implementation and development of automated control systems (ACS);

2) improving the organization of production:

Improvement of material, technical, and personnel preparation of production

Improving the organization of production units and equipment placement

Improving the organization of auxiliary services and facilities (transport services, storage, energy, instrumental, economic and other types of services).

3) improving the organization of work

Improving divisions and cooperation of labor

Implementation of advanced labor methods and techniques

Improving the organization and maintenance of workplaces

Implementation of technically sound labor standards

Professional selection of personnel, improvement of their training and professional development

Improving working conditions

Rationalization of work and rest regimes

Improving wage systems

Without the use of these factors, it is impossible to obtain the full effect from the factors of material and technical

IV. Structural factors

Change in the structure of production, product range, staff composition

V. Industry factors

Reserves

Reserves- these are unused opportunities to increase labor productivity, that is, a decrease in labor intensity and an increase in output. They arise under the influence of scientific and technological progress. Quantitatively, these reserves can be defined as the difference between the achieved and the maximum possible levels of labor productivity at a certain point in time.

It is advisable to classify labor productivity reserves in accordance with the classification of factors ( the same 5 types).

Another type of classification of reserves is the level of their occurrence. On this basis, reserves are distinguished:

1) nationwide... National reserves are associated with the location of enterprises throughout the country, irrational employment of the population in the country as a whole.

2) regional... The same thing, only at the regional level.

3) intersectoral

4) intra-industry

5) in-house... Intra-production reserves are determined by deficiencies in the use of raw materials, materials, equipment, and working time at the enterprise. In addition to direct losses of working time, there are also hidden losses of it, which are associated with the correction of defective products or with the performance of work not foreseen by the technology.

Within the firm, it is fashionable to divide reserves into reserves for reducing labor intensity, on reserves for improving the use of working time funds, on reserves for improving the personnel structure v.

By the terms of use, the reserves are divided into long-term, strategic, tactical and operational .

To use the reserves, the enterprises develop plans for organizational and technical measures, which indicate the types of reserves for the growth of labor productivity, measures for their implementation, the planned costs for this, the timing of the work, the responsible executors.

Topic 8. Organization and regulation of labor at the enterprise

Labour Organization at the enterprise Is a system of production relationships of workers with the means of production and with each other, which forms a certain order of implementation of the labor process. It is an essential element of the production process.

The procedure for the implementation of the labor process involves the establishment of the scope of work; ensuring the selection and training of the necessary workers; division of all types of work between employees and the establishment of a system of interaction between them; adaptation of workplaces for the convenience and safety of work; development of rational forms, methods and techniques of labor; calculation and establishment of labor standards; creation favorable conditions labor; organization of service of workplaces with auxiliary works; establishment of a remuneration system; planning, analysis and accounting of labor.

The solution of the listed tasks constitutes the content of the organization of labor at the enterprise, the elements of which will be:

Division of labor.
Labor cooperation.
Labor rationing.
Organization of workplaces.
Organization of service of workplaces.
Development of rational techniques and methods of labor (ways of doing work).
Creation of safe and healthy working conditions.
Selection, training, retraining and advanced training of workers.
Organization of payment and material incentives for labor.
Education of labor discipline, support of labor activity and creative initiative.
Labor planning and accounting.

Labor organization tasks:

Economic (increasing efficiency and productivity);

Psychophysiological (creating favorable working conditions);

Technical and technological (replacement of living labor by machine labor);

Social (increasing the content of work).

Labor organization functions:

1) Resource-saving function - aimed at saving resources (raw materials, materials, energy, working time, etc.). Saving labor also includes the elimination of all useless labor. Saving resources is also served by the focus of the organization of labor on improving the quality of products: best quality is equivalent to more.

2) Optimizing function - manifests itself in ensuring full compliance of the level of labor organization with the progressive level of technical equipment of production, in achieving scientific substantiation of labor standards and labor intensity, in ensuring that the level of remuneration for labor is consistent with its final results.

3) The function of forming an effective employee is the implementation, on a scientific basis, of professional selection of employees, their training, systematic advanced training.

4) The hard-working function - manifests itself in the creation of favorable, safe and healthy working conditions, in the establishment of a rational regime of work and rest, in the facilitation of hard work.

5) The function of protecting, preserving and promoting the health of workers - since the problems of human health are largely determined by the working conditions.

6) The function of raising labor - since a person has social needs and strives for highly meaningful and prestigious work. Labor elevates the creation of conditions in production for human development, increasing the content and attractiveness of labor, eradicating routine and primitive labor processes, ensuring the diversity of labor.

7) Educational function - aimed at developing labor discipline among workers.

8) Activating function - aimed at developing workers' labor activity and creative initiative.

An important element of work organization is division of labor, which is the separation of types of work activities between employees, teams and other departments in the enterprise. This is the starting point for the organization of labor, which, based on the goals of production, consists in assigning to each employee and to each division of their duties, functions, types of work, technological operations. Distinguish the following forms of division of labor at enterprises:

1) functional - depending on the nature of the functions performed by workers in production and their participation in the production process. On this basis, workers are divided into workers and employees. Employees are divided into managers, specialists and technical executors, and workers can be divided into main, service and auxiliary workers;

2) technological - by phases and types of work; by products, assemblies and details; on technological operations. It determines the arrangement of workers in accordance with the production technology and significantly affects the level of the content of labor. Varieties of this form of division of labor are detailed, subject and operational division of labor;

3) professional - by specialties and professions. A profession is a type of activity of a person who possesses certain theoretical knowledge and practical skills obtained as a result of vocational training. Specialty - the specialization of an employee within the profession;

4) qualification - according to the complexity and accuracy of work in accordance with professional knowledge and work experience, depending on the qualification level of employees.

Organically linked to the division of labor cooperation of labor- This is the establishment of a system of production interconnection and interaction of employees and departments with each other.

There are the following forms of labor cooperation:

1) interdepartmental cooperation of specialized workshops - aimed at ensuring their well-coordinated interaction in the production of the enterprise's products;

2) intrashop cooperation of specialized sections - the interconnection of their activities for the production of the shop's products;

3) intra-divisional cooperation of individual workers or production teams for the production of products assigned to them;

4) intra-brigade cooperation - unites workers who jointly perform a single production task for the brigade and bear collective responsibility for the results of the brigade's work.

5) inter-executive form of cooperation - interaction between individual autonomous workers.

The most important directions for improving the division and cooperation of labor are combining professions, expanding service areas and multi-station work. The combination of professions is the performance during the normal working day, along with work in the main profession, of work in a second or several professions. It is advisable to use a combination of professions in those jobs where there are long technological breaks, as well as where, when working on machines or when servicing units, there is a time during which the worker, when the machine or unit is running, is free from the need for maintenance. Mastering related professions has great economic and social meaning even in cases when there is no free time during the working day, but the work is monotonous. In such conditions, it is advisable to change work, change operations, move according to a certain schedule from one workplace to another, which leads to an increase in the variety of work, an increase in its content and attractiveness, and has a beneficial effect on the health and mood of workers, as well as on the results of work.

An essential part of the organization of work - organization of workplaces... The workplace is the zone of labor activity of a worker or a group of workers (if the workplace is collective), equipped with the necessary means to perform the work. The organization of a workplace is understood as the system of its equipment and layout.

Depending on the specifics of production, jobs can be:

Specialized and versatile;

Individual and collective;

Stationary and mobile;

Single-station and multi-station;

Permanent and temporary;

Manual workstations, mechanized, automated, hardware, employee workstations, etc.

The equipment of the workplace consists of the totality of funds necessary for the implementation of the production process. These include:

1) main technological and auxiliary equipment;

2) technological equipment- working and auxiliary tools, various devices, spare parts;

3) organizational rigging- communication and signaling equipment, work furniture, packaging;

4) working documentation;

5) means of communication for supplying raw materials, materials, energy to the workplace;

6) household equipment for maintaining cleanliness and order, etc.

Full and complete equipment of the workplace allows you to organize the work process in the best possible way. This requires: rational planning of equipment (placing them in the workplace so as to ensure the convenience of their maintenance); Free access to mechanisms and their separate units requiring regulation and control; saving movements and movements of the employee; comfortable working position; good overview of the working area; safety; saving production space; the presence of passages, entrances and driveways for vehicles; interconnection with adjacent workplaces and with the place of the foreman, foreman, other manager.

To identify deviations from the regulatory requirements for workplaces and improve the organization of workplaces in accordance with the requirements of workplace certification... According to the results of certification, inefficient workplaces can be abolished, while there is an opportunity for a more rational use of production areas and the installation of modern high-performance equipment.

The level of organization of work in the workplace also depends on the perfection of the system of its service. Organization of services for workplaces is the timely provision of workplaces with everything necessary.

Working conditions Is a set of environmental factors that affect the performance and health of a person in the labor process.

A worker in a production environment is influenced by a large number of external factors, which by their origin can be divided into two groups:

1) factors that do not depend on the characteristics of production, among them geographic and climatic, which are due to the geographical area and climatic zone location of the enterprise, and socio-economic, which depend on the socio-economic system of society and determine the position of the worker in society as a whole (find their expression in labor legislation, in the aggregate of social benefits and guarantees).

2) factors depending on the characteristics of production and its team. They can also be divided into two groups: production and technical (formed under the influence of the characteristics of technology, technology, and organization of production) and socio-psychological (formed under the influence of the characteristics of the work collective).

The group of production and technical factors is the most extensive. It includes:

a) technical and technological factors - features of technology and technology, the level of mechanization and automation of labor, the degree of equipping of workplaces, the mode of work and rest. Under the influence of these factors, the physical severity of labor is formed, characterized by the volume of physical work and the load per shift, and the neuropsychic tension, determined by the amount of processed information, the intensity of attention, the intensity of the analytical and mental activity, the degree of monotony of labor, the pace of work;

b) sanitary and hygienic factors - temperature, humidity, air velocity in the working room; levels of noise, vibration, dustiness, gas content, radiation; illumination, contact of parts of the worker's body with water, engine oil, toxic substances, the general condition of production facilities;
safety factors that guarantee the protection of workers from mechanical damage, electric shock, from chemical and radiation pollution;

c) engineering and psychological factors - comfort in the workplace, the perfection of the design and layout of equipment, controls and controls over the course technological process, ease of maintenance of machines and mechanisms;

d) aesthetic factors - architectural and planning solutions of the interior and exterior, aesthetically expressive form and color of labor tools, overalls, appropriate design of recreation areas, etc.;

c) household factors - organization of intra-shift meals for workers; the presence and condition of cabins, washstands, showers, toilets; organization of laundry, dry cleaning and repair of workwear, cleaning of premises, territory.

Socio-psychological factors - the socio-demographic structure of the team, the set of interests and values of employees, the style of leadership in departments and at the enterprise as a whole, the scale and nature of the activities of public organizations. These factors form the moral and psychological climate in the team.

An important part of the organization of work at the enterprise is labor rationing- This is the process of establishing scientifically based norms of labor costs for the performance of any work. The scientific substantiation of norms involves taking into account the technical and technological capabilities of production, taking into account the characteristics of the objects of labor used, the use of progressive forms, techniques and methods of labor, its physiologically justified intensity, normal working conditions.

The labor rate is a measure of labor expended in certain organizational and technical conditions, taking into account advanced experience. Labor standards fix the achieved level of technical, technological and organizational perfection at the enterprise and for these conditions establish the measure of labor. They are also a necessary element of labor and production planning: with the help of labor standards, they calculate the labor intensity of the production program, determine the required number of personnel and its structure at the enterprise. Also, labor standards are an integral part of the organization of labor remuneration, since with their help a rate is established - the amount of earnings for performing a unit of work.

Types of substantiation of labor standards: technical and technological, economic, psychophysiological.

In practice, the following types of labor standards are used:

1) time norm - the amount of working time required to perform any work;

2) production rate - the number of products that must be produced per unit of time. There is an inverse relationship between the rate of time and the rate of production;

3) service rate - the number of objects (machines, mechanisms, workplaces, etc.) that an employee or a group of employees must serve per unit of working time;

4) the service time rate is the time required to service one object. There is also an inverse relationship between the service rate and the service time rate;

5) headcount rate - the number of employees of a certain profile and qualifications required to perform a specific job for a certain period.

Working time cost structure:

The study of the cost of working time is carried out using two main methods of observing working hours: photographs of working hours and timing.

Working time photography- type of observation, which measures all, without exception, the time spent by the performer (s) for a certain period of work (for example, for a shift or part of it). It is carried out mainly to identify the loss of working time, to establish the causes of these losses, and to develop the necessary organizational and technical measures to eliminate them.

Depending on the number of workers observed, a photograph can be individual, group (brigade), mass.

A photograph of working time consists of the following stages: preparation for observation, observation and measurement of the cost of working time, processing and analysis of observations, development and implementation of organizational and technical measures in production. In the period of preparation for observations, the forthcoming technological process, the organization of the workplace, its maintenance are studied; specifications, operating modes and equipment condition. All actions of the performer and breaks in work are recorded strictly in order in the observation sheet.
When processing photo data, a consolidated balance of working time is compiled by cost categories: preparatory and final time, operational time, etc. In the process of analysis, irrational costs and losses of working time are determined, their causes are established. After the analysis, a projected balance of working time is drawn up. At the same time, all irrational costs and losses of working time will be excluded and due to them, the operational time will increase. Based on the data of the actual and projected balances, a possible increase in labor productivity is determined by eliminating losses and irrational expenditures of working time.

In the practice of labor rationing, self-photographs of working hours are also widely used. Unlike photography of a working day, self-photography takes into account only the loss of working time associated with organizational and technical problems, which are recorded by the employee himself in a special observation form.
The purpose of self-photography is to involve the workers themselves in improving the organization of labor.

Timing- type of observation, in which cyclically repeating elements of operational work, individual elements of preparatory and final work or work on servicing the workplace are studied. The main purpose of timing: determination of the duration of the repeating elements of the operation (techniques and movements) for the calculation of norms or for the development of time standards; identification and study of advanced methods and techniques of labor; verification of established labor standards; identification of the reasons for non-compliance with the standards by employees.

During the period of preparation for timing, the observer studies the technological process of performing the standardized operation, analyzes it, breaks the operation into elements, examines the operating mode of the equipment and the organization of the workplace. All identified deficiencies are eliminated prior to observation. When choosing a contractor, the degree of compliance with the norms, his qualifications, the conformity of the work and the category of the worker are taken into account. Before timing is carried out, the number of necessary observations is established. It depends on the duration of the elements of the operation, the type of production and the requirements for the degree of accuracy of the data obtained. For greater accuracy, more observations are made.
Timing can be continuous, when measurements of the duration of the operation elements are carried out continuously from the beginning to the end of the operation, and selective, in which measurements of the individual elements of the operation are carried out.

In practice, there are two main method of labor rationing: experimental-statistical (total) and analytical.

With the experimental statistical method labor standards are established as a whole for all work without element-by-element analysis of operations. This method assumes the definition of labor standards based on the personal experience of the rate setter and is based on the establishment of standards based on data on the actual time spent on similar work in the past. This method cannot be recognized as scientific, since with its help labor standards are developed without the necessary analysis of the actual working conditions.

Scientifically based labor standards are established by an analytical method. With its help, rationing is carried out in the following order:

1) the normalized operation is divided into its constituent elements;

2) all factors influencing the duration of each element are determined;

3) the rational composition of the operation and the sequence of its elements are designed, taking into account the best combination of factors affecting their duration;

4) the time spent on each element is calculated and the time norm for the operation as a whole is determined.

It is also necessary to develop organizational and technical measures to ensure the implementation of the projected work process and the established norm.

Analytical method of standardization has two varieties: analytical-calculation and analytical-research. They differ in the way they measure the time spent.

With the analytical and computational method, the time spent on each element of the operation and the operation as a whole is determined according to scientifically based standards.

With the analytical research method, the time spent on each element and the operation as a whole is established on the basis of direct measurements of these costs at workplaces (by taking a photograph of working time or timing).

When rationing the labor of employees, the same methods are used as for rationing the labor of workers. For employees, headcount norms are calculated (for example, the number of accountants) and time norms (for example, for typing, drawing or copying). Labor standards can be differentiated (per operation) and enlarged (for the entire job). Differentiated labor standards are used to standardize the labor of technical performers, and enlarged ones are used to rate the labor of specialists. As a result of the analysis of labor standards covering all types of work and operations inherent in a particular position, the required number of relevant employees is determined. For managers, the number of subordinates and deputies assigned to them is also regulated. For employees engaged in servicing production or the population (for example, for employees of computer centers, timekeepers, cashiers), it is advisable to establish service standards.

Labor standards cannot remain unchanged for a long period of time and are subject to periodic updates as the labor intensity of manufacturing products (performing work, rendering services) decreases and as the reserves for the growth of labor productivity are identified and used. This work takes place in the following order:

1) certification of workplaces is carried out;

2) a plan for technical development and improvement of the organization of production is being developed;

3) new labor standards are developed and mastered.

Assessment of the quality of existing labor standards involves checking each standard for compliance with the achieved level of technology, technology, organization of production and labor, after which a decision is made on certification or non-certification of verified standards. Uncertified labor standards are recognized as outdated or erroneously established. Obsolete labor standards are considered to be in force in jobs, the labor intensity of which has decreased as a result of improved organization of production and labor, the growth of professional skills and the improvement of production skills of workers. Labor standards are considered to be erroneous, in the establishment of which organizational and technical conditions were incorrectly taken into account or inaccuracies were made in the application of regulatory materials or in the calculations. Uncertified labor standards are subject to change. The revision of outdated labor standards is carried out within the time frame established by the head of the enterprise in agreement with the trade union committee and within the framework of the plan for replacing and revising labor standards. The revision of erroneously established norms is carried out as soon as they are identified in agreement with the trade union committee.

Labor standards are to be replaced with new ones as organizational and technical measures are introduced to ensure an increase in labor productivity:

1) commissioning of new and modernization of existing equipment;

2) the introduction of advanced technology;

3) improvement of equipment, tools, etc .;

4) mechanization and automation of production processes;

5) improving the organization of workplaces;

6) introduction of rationalization proposals, etc.

The basis for changing labor standards is also the expiration of temporary standards. Temporary labor standards are those that are established for the period of mastering new products, new technology, new technology, as well as for the period of organization of production and labor.

In order to systematically work to reduce labor costs and improve the existing labor standards at the enterprise, a plan is being developed to replace and revise labor standards. This plan is drawn up on the basis of a plan for technical development and production improvement. The plan for the replacement and revision of labor standards, approved and agreed with the trade union committee, is included in the collective agreement.

Indicators of the number and movement of employees of enterprises

The number of employees of the enterprise is characterized by two indicators:

1) payroll number of employees on a certain date

2) the average number of employees for a certain period of time

Payroll number of employees- This is the number of employees registered at the enterprise on a certain date. This indicator includes all employees who are registered at the enterprise at a given point in time, regardless of whether they worked on that day or were absent for various reasons.

To determine the average headcount employees for a month, you need to add up the list numbers of employees for each calendar day of the month, including holidays and weekends, and divide the amount received by the number of calendar days of the month. In this case, the payroll number of employees on holidays and weekends is taken on the previous working day.

If the enterprise has been working for an incomplete month, then to determine the average number of employees, you need to divide the total number of employees for all days of the enterprise, including holidays and weekends, by the full number of calendar days of the month.

As of 19.02, the payroll was 302 people.

02.20 - 310 people.

It is necessary to determine the average number of employees for February.

The average number of employees for a quarter or for a year is determined by dividing the sum of the average number of employees for all months of the quarter or year by 3 (in the quarter 3 months) or 12, respectively. If an enterprise has worked for an incomplete quarter or incomplete year, then the average number of employees of this company for a quarter or for a year is determined as the quotient of dividing the sum of the average number of employees for all months of operation of the enterprise by 3 or 12, respectively.

To characterize the movement of employees of enterprises, the following indicators are determined:

1) the absolute turnover on hiring is the number of people hired for the period

2) absolute turnover on dismissal - the number of employees who left for the period

3) the absolute total turnover is the sum of hired and dismissed employees for the period

4) the coefficient of turnover by admission (for the period)

5) the coefficient of turnover on dismissal

6) ratio of total turnover

7) staff turnover rate

Working time funds and their utilization rates

The main units for measuring working time are man-day and man-hour. A worked man-day is considered to be an employee's appearance at work, regardless of how many hours he worked. A more accurate measure of working time is man-hour, that is, the hour of work actually used in production.

To construct indicators of the use of working time, the calendar, time, maximum possible, attendance funds of working time are determined.

The calendar fund of working time is equal to the sum of man-days of attendance and absenteeism of all employees. It includes the entire time of the estimated period and can be defined as the product of the number of calendar days in a period by the average number of employees for the same period.

The staffing fund of working time is less than the calendar one by the number of holidays and days off. The maximum possible fund of working time is less than the calendar one by the number of man-days of absences on weekends and holidays, and in connection with regular vacations.

Its composition can be represented as follows (what we include there): (in days)

Man-days actually worked

Day-to-day downtime

Going on study leave

Being on maternity leave

Absenteeism due to illness

Other absenteeism permitted by law

Failure to appear with the permission of the administration of the enterprise

Truancy

The on-site fund is equal to the sum of the actual number of man-days worked and the number of downtime.

To characterize the use of working time, the following indicators are determined:

1) the utilization rate of the calendar fund of working time

2) the utilization rate of the staff time fund

3) The utilization rate of the maximum working time

Remuneration for labor and remuneration for labor.

The key goal of remuneration for work is to stimulate employee behavior to achieve the goals and objectives of the enterprise. At the same time, remuneration means everything that the employee considers valuable for himself.

The reward is internal and external.

Internal reward is provided by the work itself - a sense of achievement of the result, meaningfulness and significance of the work performed, self-respect, the ability to communicate in the labor process.

External remuneration is given by the enterprise - promotion, praise and recognition, symbols of service status and prestige, salary, as well as additional payments, additional leave, payment of certain expenses and insurance, etc.

Remuneration for work has the following goals:

1) attraction of employees

2) staff retention

3) motivation of labor productivity

4) control over labor costs

Remuneration for work must comply with the following principles:

· Meet legal requirements

Complexity - that is, the inclusion of all types of remuneration

A combination of individual and collective types of remuneration

Flexibility and differentiability

Individualization - taking into account the individual needs of a person

Simplicity and clarity

Efficiency - optimization of labor costs with the maximum possible return

Equal pay for equal work

The cost of labor is determined by the cost of the means of subsistence necessary for the normal production of an employee, his education, medical care, professional development, as well as the maintenance of a member of his family.

The concrete form of the value of labor power in monetary terms is the price of labor power, i.e. wage.

Salary is the employee's monetary earned income associated with performing certain duties, in accordance with the terms of employment

This is the price paid to an employee for using his labor.

This is a form of economic realization of the ownership right to the employee's labor resource.

Salary performs the following functions:

1) Reproduction function. This is to ensure the full recovery of the employee's costs and the creation of conditions for his normal life.

2) Stimulating function. Wages are a means of motivating quality, productive and efficient work.

3) Social function... Wages should reflect the social status of the employee and address the issue of social justice.

4) Formation of effective demand. This is the influence of wages through the effective demand of the population on the volume and structure of produced goods and services.

5) Regulatory. This is the optimization of the allocation of labor resources by regions and sectors of the economy, as well as by enterprises.

6) Accounting and production function. Wages reflect the degree of participation of living labor in the process of product formation.

A number of market and non-market factors affect the amount of wages.

Market factors affecting the value of wages include:

1) a change in the demand for goods and services in the production of which this labor is used.

2) the usefulness of a resource (a specific person) for an entrepreneur

3) own elasticity of labor demand

4) the interchangeability of labor and capital

5) change in the price of goods and services consumed by the employee.

Non-market factors include:

1) state regulation of wages

2) contractual regulation of wages

3) The final results of the enterprise and the personal labor contribution of the employee.

State regulation of wages:

1) legislative regulation of the conditions and procedure for remuneration

2) regulation of wages of public sector employees

3) the establishment of the minimum wage

4) inter-district regulation of wages using district coefficients and allowances

5) tax regulation of wages through direct and indirect taxes

Organization of labor remuneration- this is its construction, ensuring the relationship of remuneration with its quantity, quality and result.

Elements shaping wages

1. Tariff regulation of labor

1) Rate for qualification guides

2) Tariff grids

3) Tariff rates and official salaries

4) Surcharges and allowances

2. Technical regulation of labor - the establishment of standards for production, maintenance, etc.

3. Forms and systems of remuneration

Labor rates are used to determine rates.

Forms and systems of remuneration- these are the methods and conditions for the use of labor standards and the tariff system for calculating the wages of an employee, taking into account the characteristics of their work. They are based on the fact that wages are set for the components: the quality of labor, the amount of labor, the result of labor.

Tariff system it is a set of standards necessary to take into account the main differences in labor associated with its complexity and qualifications of the employee.

Tariff grid- a set of a certain number tariff categories and the corresponding tariff coefficients. Range tariff scale- the ratio of the tariff coefficients of the extreme categories (how much one is more than the other).

Tariff rates- expressed in monetary terms, the amount of remuneration per unit of working time, they can be hourly or daily. They are established for each category, while the tariff rate of the corresponding category.

(formula)

First class tariff rate

Discharge rate coefficient i.

And for the remuneration of workers in certain professions, monthly salaries are established.

T arithmetic and qualification reference book – normative document which is intended for the tariffication of work and the assignment of categories to workers.

The qualification characteristics that are in it are divided:

1) a description of the work that a worker of this qualification must perform

2) it is indicated that he must know about his equipment, about the properties of the processed materials, about the technology and production processes, etc.

3) contains examples of work typical for each category, which makes it easier to assign each work to a certain category

For employees, there is a qualification reference book of positions of managers, specialists and employees, which is used in enterprises for the correct division of labor, selection, placement and use of personnel, definition of job responsibilities, qualification requirements for managers, specialists and employees.

There are also three sections:

1) job duties

2) what he needs to know

3) qualification requirements

On the basis of these characteristics, job descriptions are developed at enterprises.

Surcharges and surcharges- the main types of additional payments can be as follows: for work in difficult and harmful conditions, for high labor intensity, for combining professions or positions, for work on weekends and holidays, for work at night, for team leadership. Bonuses - for high skill, for high achievements in work, for the performance of particularly important and urgent work, for work experience in adverse climatic conditions.

Forms and systems of remuneration- determine different ways of calculating earnings by an employee.

Two forms of wages: piecework and time-based.

Piecework wages:

Its use is possible only if the following conditions are met:

1) There are quantitative indicators of production that correctly reflect labor costs.

2) Real opportunities have been created for workers to increase production

3) There is a need to increase the volume of production,

4) Accurate accounting of manufactured products is organized

5) The growth of production is ensured, excluding the deterioration of product quality, violation of production technology, and safety rules

Piecework wages have systems:

2) indirect piecework

3) piecework bonus

4) piece-rate progressive

5) piece-by-piece regressive

6) one-piece

Each of these systems can be individual and collective, or brigade. Direct piece rate system- the piece rate is multiplied by the number of manufactured products.

Indirect piece rate system- is set for the remuneration of service workers and depends on the results of the work of the piece-workers they serve.

Piece by piece premium- workers receive wages at direct piece rates, and additionally receive bonuses for certain quantitative and qualitative indicators.

Piecewise progressive- within the limits of the norm, the employee is paid at direct piece rates, and performance in excess of the norm at increased rates.

Piece by piece regressive - for exceeding the norm, it pays lower. It is designed to prevent the worker from overwork, physical and nervous exhaustion.

Chord system- the price is set for the entire volume of work, and not for a separate operation. An employee makes a piece of clothing, it cannot be broken in an operation. In this case, a certain agreement is established between the employee and the employer, which determines the payment for the entire unit of the product after its readiness. That. an employee cannot influence the volume of production and the amount of his wages, but he can - reduce the working time and thereby increase labor productivity.

Labor force participation rates are applied to calculate salaries in the brigade.

Time-based form of wages.

The following systems exist:

1) simple timephased

2) time bonus

3) salary

These forms and systems were tariff. There is also a tariff system of remuneration without which an employee's salary does not depend on the volume of production and not on the amount of costs. It is often used when an employee provides a useful result to the employer not by his work, but by the very fact of belonging to an enterprise or organization. Employees in this category provide for an enterprise or organization. They improve the image of the company, demonstrating its reliability and solidity to the clients, use their personal and business ties, that is, their social capital, in the interests of the company. Since the source of income in this case is not labor, but an intangible asset - social status, this income is not a salary, but a rent. At the same time, when assessing the growth of wages, one should always evaluate the growth of not only nominal, but also real wages.

We calculate how much salaries and prices have grown.

The level and quality of life of the population.

The main

Nominal

Real income - nominal, adjusted for index C

The level of average income is determined - the arithmetic mean for all households.

Average real and nominal salary.

Average pension, unemployment benefits, scholarships, etc.

Median income level. The median is the value of the trait, above and below which the same income is received.

Indicators of the purchasing power of the population - the potential of the population to purchase goods and services for these incomes.

Group 3: consumption and expenditures of the population - grouping according to the directions of expenditure of the population.

Group 4: cash savings of the population - cash from the population, deposits in banks, various securities.

5 group: accumulated property and dwelling: the value of accumulated household property, the presence and characteristics of objects durable, housing conditions of the population

Group 6: an indicator of social differentiation of the population

7 groups: indicators characterizing the poor

Human development index

HPI (HumanDevelopmentIndex)

The most famous indicator of the standard of living, which is officially used in UN publications. It is calculated and published since 1990 for UN countries. In accordance with the value of the index, all countries are subdivided into 3 groups: with a high, middle and lower standard of living.

1. Life Expectancy LEI (LifeExpectancyIndex)

1. Reflects the degree of achievement of the goal and survival, depends on the level of income of the population, the quality of medical care, its availability, etc.

LEI = (LE-LE min) / (LE max -LE min)

LE-Actual life expectancy at birth in the country in question (min / max among countries of the world)

Among the most developed countries of the world, the Russian Federation is in 98th place. Average life expectancy is 65 years. And the index is 0.67.

The most important factor behind the RF's lag is the insufficient amount of state funding for health care. The share of expenditures in GDP does not exceed 2%.

2. Reflects the degree of achievement of goals and development. It depends on the level of development of the country's productive forces, on the level of culture and on the policy of the state:

GI - Adult Literacy Index

HI - index of youth participation in learning

Moreover, each of these indices are calculated:

GI = (G-G min) / (G max -G min)

G - the actual level of literacy of the population

HI = (H-H min) / (H max -H min)

N - the proportion of students under the age of 24 years.

In the Russian Federation it is 0.96. Education from GDP is 3%.

3. Reflects the degree of achievement of consumption goals.

GDPI = (GDP-GDP min) / (GDP max -GDP min)

Actual GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power.

In the Russian Federation 0.76. - 56th place

HDI = (LEI + EI + GDPI) / 3

In the Russian Federation, 0.8-place is 63-65. In the group of countries with an average value - 5th place. Changes.

Poverty

The most important indicator of the standard of living is monetary income, therefore the state sets a certain minimum level of income that ensures the normal reproduction of the population. This level of income is the size of the living wage. The subsistence minimum includes the cost estimate of the consumer basket, as well as mandatory fees.

Consumer basket - a minimum set of food items, non-food products, services that are necessary to preserve human health and life. The composition of the basket is reviewed every few years, and the cost every week. The size of the subsistence minimum is the Government of the Russian Federation, and additionally in the constituent entities by the executive authorities. The minimum subsistence value is identified by region and by social group: all population, able-bodied, pensioners and children.

The minimum wage is established throughout the territory of the Russian Federation and, according to the law, should not be less than the subsistence minimum. There was a program to raise the salary to the level of the subsistence minimum, but the corresponding law has not yet been adopted. This is an abstract quantity. There is also no law on the minimum amount of pension, therefore, a very large proportion of the population has an income below the subsistence level. There is poverty in society - a lack of livelihoods for a person who has an income below the subsistence level.

1. Poor households

2. Extremely poor households (2 or more times below the subsistence level)

Indicators:

1. The population with incomes below the minimum - 25 million

2. Specific gravity - 20%

3. Deficit of cash income - the amount of money required to bring the population to the subsistence level.

5. Different structure of poor households (social portrait of poverty: by sex, age, profession)

The quality of life

A comprehensive assessment of the conditions of human existence: the provision of material benefits, safety, accessibility and quality of medical care, opportunities for education and development of abilities, the state of the natural environment, social relations, including freedom of expression and the influence of citizens on political decisions.

Indicators:

1. Standard of living

2. Poverty rate

3. Unemployment rate

4. Differentiation of population income

5. Average daily protein intake, etc.

6. Extent of spread of dangerous diseases

7. Infant mortality rate

8. Mortality of the population from unnatural causes

9. Crime rate

10. Emission of harmful substances into the atmosphere

11. Number of terminations of pregnancies

Conditions ensuring high quality working life

1. Fair and appropriate remuneration for work

2. Safe, healthy and comfortable working conditions

3. The ability to use and develop their abilities, the possibility of self-realization and self-expression

4. Labor democracy and legal protection of the employee

5. Opportunity for professional growth and confidence in the future

6. A worthy place of work in human life

7. Social usefulness of work

Income differentiation

Income - payment for the use of economic resources:

2. Capital

3. Entrepreneurial ability

2. Percentage

3. Profit

The differentiation of capital income is caused by the uneven distribution of wealth in society. Differentiation of profit volumes - uneven distribution of abilities, unequal starting conditions and a difference in social capital (connections). Differentiation of salary depends on many factors.

In modern labor economics, differences in labor productivity are taken as the main reason for the differentiation of wages. Factors: labor productivity, social efficiency of labor, human capital, social capital.

There is discrimination in wages - the differentiation of salary, which is not due to quality. The reason is bias.

Measuring inequality:

1. Ratio of funds

2. Ginny coefficient

1. For the calculation, households are ranked in ascending order of income, and then divided into several equal groups: the first - the poorest, the last - the richest. Average to richest ratio. The total income of the richest group to the total income of the poorest. This coefficient is not less than one. In practice, 3 coefficients are used: decile (divided into 10 groups - 10% of the rich and 10% of the poor count), quintile (20% of the rich are divided into 5 parts and 20% are poor), and the quartile (into 4 parts: 25%). Its disadvantage is its weak sensitivity to household income. the coefficient of funds will not change its value, if the household income increases, or if the income of the poorest decreases, the income of the average household changes between the richest and the poorest)

To calculate this indicator, households are ranked in order of increasing income. Divide this number into several groups. The number of groups is more than 10. In the extreme case, it may coincide with the number of households. If the total number of households is n, then the share α i = i / n of the share of the poorest group. For the poorest household it will be equal to 1 / n, for the n-th household it will be 1.

Β I is the specific weight of the total income of the i-th poorest group of the total of all households, with an increase in the number, it increases, and then equals 1. Β is always less than α ..

Lorentz curve connecting points. The number of segments will be equal to the number of surveyed households.

The coefficient is equal to the numerically doubled area between the line of absolute equality.

Let's say there are 3 households.

Boris (6 thousand rubles) α 3 = 1, β 3 = 1

Gleb (1 thousand rubles) α 1 = 1/3, β 1 = 1/10

Fedor (3 thousand rubles) α 2 = 2/3, β 2 = 4/10

Total income: 10 thousand rubles

S = 0.5-1 / 15-2 / 15 =

20.05.08

Social and labor relations

The complex of relations between employees and employers in the conditions of market relations and aimed at labor collectives and society of life that are disadvantaged at a high level and quality of human life.

The main subjects of regulation of relations are:

State

Social partnership bodies

International Labor Organization

Government regulation can be divided as follows

By objects of influence

By the direction of impact (demand, labor supply)

By the form of impact (direct and indirect)

By the nature of the impact (incentive, restrictive, prohibitive)

By level of impact (national, regional, sectoral, intracompany)

By funding sources (from the state budget, from the budgets of the fund)

The state policy of regulation of labor relations is of two types: active and passive. Passive - aimed at maintaining the conditions for the functioning of the labor market, offers the responsibility of the state for ensuring these conditions. May include measures such as registration of unemployed, payment of unemployed benefits.

Active - increasing the competitiveness of a person in the struggle for a job. In this case, the state acts as an intermediary. It may include such measures as assistance with employment, assistance in vocational training, development in self-employment.

Social partnership- a system of relationships between employees, employers, local governments, ensuring the coordination of the interests of employees and employers, on the regulation of social and labor relations.

The social partnership system includes the following levels:

State

Regional

Industry

Territorial

The organization

Methods of influence of social partners

Consultation

Raising demands and proposals of the parties

Participation in collective bargaining

Use of conciliation procedures

Registration of reached contracts and agreements. Monitoring their implementation

The bodies of social partnership are a commission formed by representatives of the parties. The Russian Trilateral Commission operates at the federal level. Associations of employers and the Government of the Russian Federation. The main documents that are governed by social labor relations are -the collective agreement and agreement.

Agreement- a legal act that is concluded at a high level.

Employees' representatives in social partnership are trade unions

A trade union is a mass, self-governing public association of workers of a certain industry or related industries or professional group to protect and represent their interests in social and labor relations.

2 types: industry (unite workers in the industry, regardless of their occupation) and shop (exclusively of the same profession)

In modern Russia, the largest trade union association is the Federation of Independent Trade Unions, which was created after the collapse of the USSR.

There is a law on trade unions.

Employers' representatives

The employers' association (a non-profit organization that includes, on a voluntary basis, employers to protect the rights and interests of its members in relations with trade unions by state and local authorities) speaks out. In modern Russia, the largest association is the Russian Union of Industrialists and Entrepreneurs.

The main subject of regulation of social and labor relations on a global scale is the international labor organization. It was founded in 1919 on the initiative and with the active participation of the fiery Social Democracy. Founded under the League of Nations in accordance with the Versailles Peace Treaty. In order to contribute to social progress, the establishment and maintenance of social peace between different strata of society, to contribute to the solution of pressing issues in a peaceful evolutionary way.

In 1946, the ILO became the first specialized agency of the United Nations. In 1969 she was awarded Nobel Prize Peace.

The Soviet Union became a member of the ILO in 1934, then, in 1940, the USSR withdrew from the ILO and renewed its membership in 1954. The Soviet leadership had a negative attitude towards the ILO, with forced labor. Russia is a member of this organization, of course, now the attitude towards our country has changed and interest has changed, and Russia does not fulfill many of the ILO points, many points are violated (pension cannot be lower than 40% earnings)

Main tasks of the ILO

Development of international policies and programs aimed at solving social and labor problems

Creation and adoption of international labor standards in the form of conventions and recommendations

Assistance to participating countries in solving social and labor problems

Protection of human rights (rights to work, to association, from forced labor, from discrimination)

The fight against poverty, for improving the living standards of workers, the development of social security

Development of programs to improve working conditions

Facilitating the organization of workers and employers in their work with governments to regulate social and labor relations.

Development of measures to protect the most vulnerable groups of workers (youth, disabled people, emigrants)

Basic methods of work of the ILO

Development and adoption of international labor standards in ILO conventions and recommendations and monitoring of their implementation.

Conventions are international legal treaties that establish legal obligations for ratified member states. The recommendations are only intended to provide guidance for ILO member states to formulate their labor relations policies.

Providing assistance to countries for social and labor problems (work of expert advisers, granting scholarships, organizing seminars)

Research and publishing

The main ones: the official bulletin of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, the international labor review, the labor world, etc. And also collections are published: a yearbook of labor statistics, a bulletin of labor. And for the trade unions and their educational institutions - workers' education.

Organizational and Practical Areas of the ILO

- employment and unemployment (Employment Service Convention No. 88, Employment Policy Convention No. 122, Workers Protection Convention on Unjustified Dismissals No. 158, Promotion and Employment and Protection and Unemployment Convention No. 168, Workers' Protection Convention No. insolvency case)

An important stage in the activities of the ILO was the proclamation in 69 of the proclamation of the world employment program.

Fighting poverty (in 76, the ILO put forward the concept of basic needs, which defined the minimum standard of living that society should establish for the poorest groups of the population)

Training and Retraining (Paid Educational Leave Convention No. 140)

Human Rights (Convention on Forced Labor, Freedom of Association and Protection of the Right to Organize, Equal Remuneration for Men and Women, on Discrimination in the Field of Work)

Working environment (convention on working environment, occupational health and safety and working environment)

Wage

Social Security

The concept of labor, its role in the life of society. Public organization of labor. General characteristics of relations arising in the labor process.

Work- This is an expedient activity of people aimed at creating material and cultural values. Labor is the basis and an indispensable condition for the life of people. By influencing the natural environment, changing and adapting it to their needs, people not only ensure their existence, but also create conditions for the development and progress of society.
Human interaction with objects of labor and means of labor is predetermined by the level of automation and technology of machine and labor processes. As you know, labor is the basis of human life and development. In the most human nature the need to work is laid as a natural condition for its existence. Labor is equally necessary in terms of its role in society.

No object of theoretical research occupies such a significant place in science as human labor. The place of work is determined by its significance for the existence and development of the individual and the whole society. Therefore, all social and part of the natural sciences are concerned with labor problems. Human labor is also the object of the sociology of labor.

The main functions of labor include:

· Labor determines the living conditions of a person;

· Labor is a source of social wealth;

· Labor is an element of the development of productive forces;

· Labor forms a person and determines his development as a person.

Social and labor relations characterize the economic, psychological and legal aspects of the relationship between individuals and social groups in the processes caused by work. The analysis of social and labor relations is usually carried out in three areas: subjects; items, types.

Subjects social and labor relations are individuals or social groups... For the modern economy, the most important subjects of the considered relations are: employees, trade union, employer, union of employers, state.

Salaried worker is a person who has entered into an employment contract with a representative of an enterprise, public organization or state.

Employer is a person who hires one or more workers to do work. The employer can be the owner of the means of production or his representative. In particular, the employer is the manager state enterprise, who, in turn, is an employee in relation to the state.

Trade union created to protect the economic interests of employees or individuals in the liberal professions in a particular field of activity. The most important areas of activity of the trade union are: employment and wages.

State as a subject of social and labor relations in a market economy, it plays the following main roles: legislator, defender of the rights of citizens and organizations, employer, mediator and arbitrator in labor disputes.

The relationship between the subjects of social and labor relations arise under various conditions: worker-worker; employee-employer; employer trade union; employer-state; worker-state, etc.

Subjects of social and labor relations determined by the goals that people strive to achieve at various stages of their activities. It is customary to distinguish between three main stages of the human life cycle:

§ from birth to graduation;

§ period of work and / or family activity;

§ period after employment.

At the first stage, social and labor relations are associated mainly with vocational training problems... On the second - the main ones are hiring and firing relations, conditions and wages... On the third - the central one is pension problem.

To the greatest extent, the subjects of social and labor relations are due to two blocks of problems: employment; organization and remuneration.

The first of these blocks determines the possibilities of providing people with the means of subsistence, as well as the realization of individual abilities. The second block is associated with working conditions, the nature of relationships in production teams, reimbursement of labor costs, opportunities for human development in the process of labor activity.

The concept and subject of labor law.

Labor law- an independent branch of law that regulates relations in the field of wage labor. It is a relatively young branch of law (the moment of its origin dates back to the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries), and the scientist L.S. Tal became one of the founders of an independent branch of labor law.

In Russia, the main source of labor law is currently the Labor Code of the Russian Federation of December 30, 2001, No. 197-FZ (with subsequent amendments and additions), which replaced the Labor Code of the RSFSR.

Recently, public legal blocks have been distinguished from labor law, such as the law of social security (in relation to public off-budget "social funds") or the peculiarities of hiring labor for the performance of exclusively public (state and municipal) official functions.

Item

The subject of labor law is labor and other relations directly related to them. This provision is enshrined in Art. 1 of the Labor Code of the Russian Federation. Thus, we can distinguish:

Individual labor relations (ITO)

Public relations closely related to labor (OOTT) by:

· Labor organization and labor management;

· Employment with this employer;

· Training and additional professional education of employees directly from the given employer;

· Social partnership, collective bargaining, collective bargaining and agreements;

· Participation of employees and trade unions in the establishment of working conditions and the application of labor legislation in cases provided for by law;

· Material responsibility of employers and employees in the labor sphere;

· State control (supervision), trade union control over the observance of labor legislation (including labor protection legislation) and other regulatory legal acts containing labor law norms;

· Resolution of labor disputes;

· Compulsory social insurance in cases stipulated by federal laws.

Labor law system

The labor law system is a set of legal norms grouped into institutions depending on the specifics of social relations that are the subject of a given industry.
The entire system of the branch of labor law is divided into two parts: General and Special. The General Part includes norms that apply to all social relations, which determine the principles and objectives of legal regulation, the basic labor rights and obligations of employees, the delineation of powers between federal government bodies and government bodies of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation. The general part does not contain institutions, since it presents norms that have a general nature of labor regulation. The general part of labor law includes the provisions of the Constitution of the Russian Federation on the specified labor issues, the norms of Sec. I of the Labor Code of the Russian Federation "General Provisions" and sect. II "Social partnership in the world of work".
A special part of the industry is built according to institutions as a set of homogeneous groups of legal norms. The modern system of labor law in Russia includes the following institutions:
employment (combines the norms governing relations related to the search for suitable work by citizens). This institute opens a special part of the industry;
an employment contract (here are grouped the norms on the concept, types of an employment contract, the procedure for hiring, transfers, dismissal). The Labor Contract Institute is the central institution of the industry;
working time, rest time;
wages; guarantee, compensation payments;
labor discipline;
material liability of the parties to the employment contract;
labor protection.
The institutions that regulate relations closely related to labor include:
institute for vocational training and advanced training in production;
consideration of labor disputes;
supervision (control) over the observance of labor legislation.
The structure of the Labor Code of the Russian Federation is mainly built in accordance with the system of the branch of labor law. But there are some differences and differences. Thus, in the Code, special norms on the labor of women are singled out in separate chapters (Chapter 41); underage workers (Ch. 42); on guarantees and compensations for employees who combine work with training (Ch. 26). These special norms by themselves, apart from the corresponding general norms, do not represent independent institutions. The benefits indicated in them refer to the institution of labor protection, and in terms of working time - to the institution of working time and rest time. It is not an independent institution and Ch. 22 "Rationing of labor", since it is mainly associated with the institution of remuneration. Special section. XII of the Labor Code of the Russian Federation "Features of labor regulation of certain categories of workers" also does not act as an independent institution of the industry, since contains special norms that relate, respectively, to various institutions (to an employment contract, working time, etc.), and apart from general norms cannot be independent institutions.
In the legal literature, the opinion is expressed that in the Special part of labor law in market conditions, it is necessary to distinguish between two blocks of norms. Firstly, the norms in which state standards of legal regulation of hired labor are enshrined, and, secondly, contractual norms (contractual labor law). "There are no sections or chapters in the Labor Code that would reflect the fundamentals of the contractual labor law of Russia. Therefore, it would be quite logical in the Labor Code to provide for a special section in which the procedure for the development, adoption, and application of such forms of objectification of contractual labor law of Russia (types of local regulatory acts containing the norms of labor law), as the rules of the internal labor schedule, the regulation on the division of the organization, the official position (instruction), regulatory legal documents mediating the maintenance (implementation) of the technological process of the production of goods, the provision of services, the performance of certain types of work "* (14 ).
The labor law system changes and improves with the development of society and labor relations. New institutions have been formed: employment provision, social partnership. In some institutions, in particular in the field of wages, labor disputes, evolutionary processes are taking place, which also indicates changes in the system of labor law.
The system of the branch of labor law, the system of labor legislation and the system of science, including the training course, are different concepts. The labor law system is manifested in labor legislation, and labor legislation is the source of labor law. The subject and purpose of the training course is the study of labor law norms, their development, labor legal relations. The subject of science goes far beyond the scope of Russian labor legislation, since science studies not only Russian, but also foreign labor law, international legal regulation of labor. The system of labor law science is a set of theoretical views, judgments on the problems of legal regulation of social relations in the labor sphere.

5.The place of labor law in the general system of law. Trends in the development of labor law.

Russian law is a unified system of legal norms governing various social relations. However, the unity of law does not exclude its division into structural divisions, which are called branches of law.
The division of law into branches is based on the subject of legal regulation. This means that each branch of law regulates a certain complex of homogeneous social relations, which constitute its subject matter and can no longer be regulated by another branch of law.
Labor law regulates the labor relations that develop between the employee and the employer in the labor process, and some other relations directly related to them, specified in Art. 1 of the Labor Code of the Russian Federation (Labor Code of the Russian Federation). Therefore, the object of regulation is labor, as a rule, in its social form (individual labor activity is not regulated by labor law).
An additional criterion for the sectoral division of law can be the method of legal regulation, which means the methods and means used by the state in regulating certain social relations: the method of equality of participants inherent in civil law, the method of imperative prescriptions inherent in administrative law, etc. However, the method can be only an auxiliary criterion for dividing the law into sectors, since in some sectors, in particular in labor law, various methods of regulating social relations are used: equality of participants, power and subordination, differentiation in the regulation of working conditions, etc.
Labor law occupies one of the leading places in the legal system of Russia. It is determined primarily by the very subject of the industry. At all times, in all socio-economic formations, labor has been and remains the basis of human life, a source of social wealth and the well-being of every person. At the same time, labor is a means of forming a person, since outside of labor, outside of useful activity, there can be no full-fledged human personality.
The leading place of work in the life of society, in solving the economic and social problems facing Russia, requires a clear legislative regulation of the labor activity of people, ensuring the rule of law in the field of labor relations and protecting the labor rights of workers. The strengthening of the role of labor law in the modern period is due to the introduction of market relations into the labor sphere, the presence different forms organization of labor and forms of ownership, as well as the use of labor of workers individual entrepreneurs in order to carry out their business activities.
The main goals and objectives of labor law are formulated in Art. 1 of the Labor Code of the Russian Federation, which entered into force on February 1, 2002:
“The goals of labor legislation are to establish state guarantees of labor rights and freedoms of citizens, to create favorable working conditions, to protect the rights and interests of employees and employers.
The main tasks of labor legislation are to create the necessary legal conditions to achieve optimal coordination of the interests of the parties to labor relations, the interests of the state, as well as legal regulation of labor relations and other relations directly related to them. "
Thus, the main purpose of labor law is:
- social and legal protection of employees;
- ensuring favorable conditions for the labor activity of people;
- protection of the legal rights and interests of employers;
- coordination of the interests of employees, employers and the state, in the field of social and labor relations.

Labor law development trends

Trends are the main directions of the formation and development of legal norms of a given industry or its individual institutions. Reflecting the level of social development, the type of democracy, the achievements of legal science and practice, the trends show the directions of changes in labor legislation, which makes it possible to improve it and the practice of applying labor law.

Trends link together the past, present and future of labor law of the Russian Federation, its institutions and characterize this industry in dynamics, features of its development, although a number of legal norms may not correspond (deviate) at one time or another to its individual tendencies. Here is a typical example. On February 5, 1988, significant changes were made to the Labor Code regarding the rules on transferring workers to another job, their dismissal and other issues: the concept of transfer was narrowed, the grounds for dismissal were increased due to clause I of Art. 33 (dismissal of persons who have reached retirement age), which was later declared unconstitutional by the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation and canceled by the legislator. These changes, made to the Code, contradicted the tendency for the democratic development of labor legislation. There are similar deviations in the current transition period. Thus, in the wording of the 1992 Labor Code, and now in the Labor Code, the rights of trade union bodies in production and labor collectives have been reduced, which contradicts the tendency to democratize labor legislation and the development of production democracy.

In the new socio-economic and political conditions, labor legislation is being reformed, more and more adapting to market relations. Now we already have a definite system of new Russian labor legislation (see Chapter 2 of the Textbook). His analysis allows us to highlight the following main trends in the development of Russian labor law.

1. The unemployment that appeared with the transition to market relations and its growth caused the adoption of measures to promote employment, which was enshrined in the Law of the Russian Federation "On Employment of the Population in the Russian Federation" dated April 19, 1991, with subsequent amendments and additions and in a number of other regulatory legal acts. Legally secured in the Law public policy in the field of employment.

2. Democratization of labor legislation. This applies to the mechanism for establishing, changing and terminating labor relations, resolving individual and collective labor disputes and other labor issues. This trend appeared already in the first Labor Code of 1918 and was significantly expanded during Soviet times. Nowadays, it is evidenced by the reduction in the sphere of departmental consideration of individual labor disputes, the consolidation of the right to strike and its regulation, the growing role of contractual regulation of labor and other phenomena (an increase in basic and additional leaves, etc.). But it should also be noted that with the emergence of unemployment, a crisis in production, with the closure of many enterprises, production democracy has been sharply narrowed, the rights of trade unions in production have been reduced and the powers of labor collectives have been eliminated, which reflects the narrowing of production democracy, which developed countries, on the contrary, are gradually expanding.

3. Expansion of the scope of labor legislation (see § 3 of this chapter of the Textbook).

4. Securing in the labor legislation of the Russian Federation the norms of international legal regulation of labor, which become part of the national labor law in accordance with Art. 15 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation. It should be noted that some of these norms in terms of their content, guarantees of the protection of workers are lower than those previously available in the union labor legislation.

5. Deepening and expanding the differentiation of legal regulation of labor by creating not only special norms - benefits, but also norms of adaptations and exemptions (for example, according to the Law on Civil Service and other acts). In the Labor Code, this development trend was reflected in sect. XII, where the differentiation of labor law in Russia has been expanded and deepened.

6. Strengthening the legal protection of workers - expanding collective-contractual and individual-contractual regulation of labor, establishing in a centralized legislative order the level of guarantees, below which the parties to contracts (agreements) cannot establish working conditions, but can increase them without restriction in the direction of improving the situation of workers ... Labor code in sect. XIII “Protection of the labor rights of workers. Labor dispute resolution. Responsibility for violation of labor laws ”follows this trend.

7. Development of legal regulation of social partnership relations at a higher level than the enterprise, which used to be a gap in labor legislation. The Labor Code has taken out of all the institutions of the Special Part of the Labor Law to the first place of Section. II "Social partnership in the world of work".

The new Russian labor legislation is designed to ensure social protection of employees from the negative aspects of market relations. When creating new acts, the social rights and their guarantees won by several generations of Russians should not deteriorate. In essence, this is also provided for in paragraph 2 of Art. 55 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation.

The well-known Russian researcher of foreign labor law I. Ya. Kiselev notes that at present in Western foreign countries there are changes in the subject of labor law, deepening of its differentiation and expansion of its scope.

Labor law functions.

The functions of law are called the main directions of the impact of the norms of law on the behavior of persons in relationships in order to solve the assigned tasks.

Each institution of labor law has its own specific goals in legal regulation and its own tasks. The norms of a specific institution of labor law can perform not one, but several functions of this industry at the same time.

Labor law functions- these are the main directions of the impact of its norms on the behavior (consciousness, will) of people in the labor process to achieve the goals and objectives of labor legislation.

Social function

It is expressed in the implementation of the constitutional right of citizens to work. It is reflected in the norms for ensuring employment, the realization of the right to access to public service, in the norms for ensuring safe working conditions, labor protection, that is, it solves certain social problems.

Protective function

Concerns the implementation of the constitutional right of citizens to protect their labor rights, freedoms and legitimate interests by all legal means, including the right to strike. It is expressed in the establishment of a high level of working conditions, in the procedure for resolving labor disputes and the restoration of violated labor morals. The protective function is reflected in the norms of most institutions of labor law and concerns the ability to defend one's rights in all acceptable ways.

Educational function

It characterizes the application of measures of persuasion and coercion to the subjects of labor relations. It is expressed in norms on rewards and stimulation of highly productive work, as well as in norms on disciplinary liability for non-performance or improper performance of duties.

Economic function

It characterizes the interest of the state in normal, developed labor relations, since it is their development that most of all affects the economic interests of the state. In labor relations, goods and things are created, which are the basis for the economy of the state, taxes are paid, services are sold and many other phenomena occur that provide the economic component of the country. This function is implemented through the norms that determine the supervision and control over the observance of labor legislation, since through the supervision and control bodies the state defends its interests.

In the process of development of the branch of labor law and the emerging social relations in this area, the above functions are manifested in different ways and to an unequal extent. Thus, at present, the function of developing industrial democracy is significantly narrowing. Due to the crisis in the economy, the effect of the educational function has weakened, the economic interest of the state is also invisible, since the supervisory bodies are extremely small and are not able to ensure proper control over the observance of labor legislation.

7. The concept and meaning of the basic principles of labor law. Formulation, system, content and specification of the basic principles of labor law.

Usually for a branch of law, for example, civil, legislator, legal science formulate three to five basic principles of legal regulation of relations that are the subject of this branch. Previously, a similar approach took place in the labor law literature. After the adoption of the Labor Code of the Russian Federation, 19 principles of labor law and more are studied in the educational literature. Such an abundance of principles of labor law is explained by the fact that the legislator has united in Art. 2 of the Labor Code of the Russian Federation, international principles enshrined in the Declaration of the International Labor Organization (hereinafter - the ILO) "On fundamental principles and rights at work ”(1998), constitutional (Articles 19, 24, 30, 37, 46 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation), sectoral and individual institutions of labor law. It is advisable to distinguish between these types of principles, emphasizing their concretization vertically, depending on the legal force of a normative legal act: the principles enshrined in the ILO Declaration, the Constitution of the Russian Federation and the Labor Code of the Russian Federation.

Federal laws

The most important among the federal laws of the Russian Federation in the field of labor law is Labor Code 1> F. This is a consolidated federal law that has been in effect throughout Russia since February 1, 2002.

The Labor Code of the Russian Federation regulates the labor relations of all employees. The Labor Code presupposes the establishment of a high level of working conditions and comprehensive protection of the labor rights of workers.

In addition, such important laws as the Law of the Russian Federation "On Trade Unions, Their Rights and Guarantees of Activity", the Law of the Russian Federation "On Employment of the Population in the Russian Federation" and others continue to operate. The laws are in effect in the part that does not contradict the Labor Code of the Russian Federation (Article 5 of the Labor Code of the Russian Federation).

Of course, a considerable part of the regulations governing labor and relations closely related to them are by-laws. Among them, the dominant place is decrees and orders President of the Russian Federation, they must not contradict the Constitution and federal laws.

The President of the Russian Federation, in accordance with the Constitution and federal laws, determines the main directions of the domestic and foreign policy of the state, including in the field of legal regulation of labor. The President of the Russian Federation is the head of state. He has the right, by his orders and decrees, to suspend or cancel the normative acts of the Government of the Russian Federation and executive bodies in case of their contradiction with the Constitution of the Russian Federation, federal laws, decrees of the President of the Russian Federation and international agreements of the Russian Federation.

It should be borne in mind that not all acts of the president should be considered as sources of labor law. Only decrees have such a meaning. normative character (i.e. containing regulations). Other decrees, as a rule, are personalized and will not be a source of law (for example, decrees on awarding orders to employees or conferring honorary titles).

Local regulations

In the context of the transition to a market economy in the regulation of labor relations, all greater importance acquire local regulations. Firstly, normative acts adopted in a centralized manner, as a rule, establish the initial general provisions that require or allow specification. Secondly, the administrative methods of economic management that prevailed in the Soviet period are a thing of the past, and enterprises are given a greater amount of rights and freedoms than before.

Local norms to a greater extent reflect the peculiarities of the regulation of labor and social relations at each specific enterprise. They are developed by representatives of the employer with the participation of representatives of the labor collective (usually a trade union body) or are adopted taking into account the opinion of employees (their representatives). Local regulations include the Internal Labor Regulations, the Regulations on Bonuses, the Regulations on the Payment of Remuneration at the End of the Year, Regulations on Labor Remuneration, Labor Protection Rules at the Enterprise, etc. Local regulations also include orders, instructions, instructions adopted by the management of the organization within their competence. Local regulations should not contradict higher regulations. Legislation regulates the procedure for the development, adoption and approval of individual local regulations. But it should be borne in mind that the legislator separates the collective agreement from local regulations, which is an act of social partnership at the local level.

Payment

The difference between an employee and a performer is determined by several criteria.

The employee receives remuneration regardless of the quality of the work; only its size can vary. Legislation defines clear boundaries of the minimum wage.

The contractor is less protected in the event of a disputable situation. This is especially true for the size of wages. Moreover, the performer is paid for the result, the employee is paid for the process of activity.

Subjects of the individual labor relationship. 16. Content of an individual labor relationship

The labor relationship is the legal relationship between the employee and the employer in the process of fulfilling the duties assigned to him by the employee.

Labor relations- this is a voluntary legal relationship between the employee and the employer, in which both parties in the production process are subject to the rules of the internal labor schedule, labor law, collective and individual labor agreement.

The relationships themselves have specific features:

§ proceed under conditions of subordination to the internal labor regulations;

§ the employee, as a rule, is included in the labor collective.

Protection of trade union rights.

Legal protection of trade union rights is guaranteed.

Cases of violations of the rights of trade unions are considered by the court at the request of the prosecutor or on the statement of claim or complaint of the relevant body of the trade union, the primary trade union organization.

The collective agreement may include:

§ form, system and amount of remuneration, monetary remuneration, benefits, compensation, additional payments;

§ a mechanism for regulating labor remuneration based on price increases, inflation, performance of indicators determined by the collective agreement; employment, retraining, conditions for the release of workers;

§ duration of working hours and hours of rest, vacations; improvement of working conditions and safety of employees, including women and youth (adolescents);

§ voluntary and compulsory medical and social insurance;

§ observance of the interests of employees during the privatization of an enterprise, departmental housing;

§ environmental safety and health protection of workers at work;

§ benefits for employees who combine work with training; control over the implementation of the collective agreement, responsibility of the parties, social partnership, ensuring normal conditions for the functioning of trade unions and other representative bodies authorized by employees;

§ refusal from strikes under the conditions included in this collective agreement, if they are timely and fully implemented.

The collective agreement, taking into account the economic opportunities of the enterprise, may contain other, including more preferential, labor and socio-economic conditions in comparison with the norms and provisions established by legislation and the agreement (additional vacations, supplements to pensions, early retirement, compensation transportation and travel expenses, free or partially paid meals for workers at work and their children in schools and preschool institutions, other additional benefits and compensations).

The procedure, terms for the development of the project and the conclusion of the collective agreement, the composition of the commission, the venue and the agenda of negotiations are determined by the parties and formalized by an order for the enterprise and a decision of the trade union, other authorized representative body (part 1 of article 12 of the Law).

The draft collective agreement is subject to mandatory discussion by employees in the divisions of the enterprise and is being finalized taking into account the received comments, proposals, additions. The revised unified project is approved by the general meeting (conference) of the labor collective and signed by the employees by all members of the joint representative body and the employer.

The collective agreement is concluded for a period of one to three years... It comes into force from the moment it is signed by the parties or from the day specified in the collective agreement, and is valid for the entire period.

The collective agreement, annexes, protocols of disagreements signed by the parties are sent by the employer to the appropriate body of the Ministry of Labor of the Russian Federation for notification registration within seven days.

To resolve differences in the course of collective bargaining, the parties use conciliation procedures. Within three days after drawing up the protocol of disagreements, the parties conduct consultations, form a conciliation commission from their composition and, if no agreement is reached, they turn to a mediator chosen by agreement of the parties. Decisions are drawn up in protocols that are attached to the collective agreement.

The Law of the Russian Federation "On Collective Agreements and Agreements" established the liability of a person representing the employer in the form of a fine for evading participation in negotiations to conclude, amend or supplement a collective agreement, an agreement in the amount of up to fifty times the minimum wage imposed in court (Art . 25 of the law).

For violation and non-fulfillment of the collective agreement in accordance with Art. 26 of the law, the perpetrators representing the employer are subject to a fine of up to fifty times the minimum wage imposed in court.

For failure to provide the information necessary for collective bargaining and control, the guilty persons representing the employer are disciplined or fined up to fifty times the minimum wage imposed in court (Article 27 of the Law).

Article 46. Content and structure of the agreement

The agreement may include mutual obligations of the parties on the following issues:

salary;

working conditions and labor protection;

modes of work and rest;

development of social partnership;

other issues determined by the parties.