The main purpose of research methodology is. Research methods and methodology

State educational institution

Higher professional education

"Russian Customs Academy"

Department of Humanities

ESSAY

in the discipline "Fundamentals of Scientific Research"

on the topic "Methods of Scientific Research"

Completed by: 2nd year student of the full-time course of study of the Faculty of Customs, group T-094 A.S. Akimushkin

Checked:

INTRODUCTION …………………………………………………………………… ..3

The concept of the method and methodology of scientific research ……………… 4

Philosophical and general scientific methods of scientific research. …… ... 7

Private and special methods of scientific research …………… 11

Theoretical and empirical methods ………………………… ..… ..12

CONCLUSION …………………………………………………………… ..17

LIST OF USED SOURCES ………………………… 18

As we know, all science is based on facts. She collects facts, compares them and draws conclusions - establishes the laws of the field of activity that she studies. The methods of obtaining these facts are called scientific research methods.

The strength of science largely depends on the perfection of research methods, on how valid and reliable they are, how quickly and efficiently a given branch of knowledge is able to perceive and use in itself all the newest and most advanced that appears in the methods of other sciences.

In its procedural implementation, the study can be structured in different ways. It can begin with the development of a goal and be consistently carried out until a certain result is achieved, going through the stages of a hypothesis or concept, preliminary recommendations, or just preparatory work. The research process is a sequence of stages of its implementation, a combination and sequence of various operations and procedures, the choice and combination of priorities.

Modern science has an extensive and rich arsenal of research methods. But the success of the research largely depends on what criteria we use to choose the methods for conducting a particular research and in what combination we use these methods.

Purpose of the work: to characterize the main methods of scientific research.
To achieve this goal, the following tasks were solved:

give a formulation of the concepts of "method" and "methodology";

list the main methods of scientific research;

briefly describe the philosophical and general scientific methods of scientific research;

briefly describe private and special methods of scientific research.

CONCEPTS OF THE METHOD

AND METHODOLOGY OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

The method of scientific research is a way of knowing objective reality. The method is a certain sequence of actions, techniques, operations.

Depending on the content of the studied objects, the methods of natural science and methods of social and humanitarian research are distinguished.

Research methods are classified by branches of science: mathematical, biological, medical, socio-economic, legal, etc.

Depending on the level of knowledge, methods of empirical, theoretical and metatheoretical levels are distinguished 1.

The methods of the empirical level include:

observation;

description;

comparison;

measurement;

questionnaire survey;

interview;

experiment, etc.

The methods of the theoretical level include:

axiomatic;

hypothetical (hypothetical-deductive);

formalization;

abstraction;

general logical methods (analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, analogy), etc.

The methods of the metatheoretical level are dialectical, metaphysical, hermeneutic, etc. Some scientists refer to this level as the method of system analysis, while others include it in the number of general logical methods.

Depending on the scope and degree of generality, methods are distinguished:

1) general (philosophical), acting in all sciences and at all stages of knowledge;

2) general scientific, which can be applied in the humanities, natural and technical sciences;

3) private - for related sciences;

4) special - for specific science, areas of scientific knowledge.

From the considered concept of the method, the concepts of technology, procedures and methods of scientific research should be distinguished.

A research technique is understood as a set of special techniques for using a particular method, and a research procedure is a certain sequence of actions.

A technique is a set of methods and techniques of cognition.

Any scientific research is carried out by certain techniques and methods, according to certain rules. The teaching about the system of these techniques, methods and rules is called methodology. However, the concept of "methodology" in the literature is used in two meanings:

1) a set of methods used in any field of activity (science, politics, etc.);

2) teaching about scientific method knowledge 2.

Each science has its own methodology. The methodology of scientific research is usually understood as the doctrine of the methods (method) of cognition, i.e. about the system of principles, rules, methods and techniques intended for the successful solution of cognitive tasks. So, for example, the methodology of legal science can be defined as the doctrine of the methods of research of state and legal phenomena.

There are the following levels of methodology:

1. General methodology, which is universal in relation to all sciences and the content of which includes philosophical and general scientific methods of cognition.

2. A private methodology of scientific research for a group of related sciences, which is formed by philosophical, general scientific and private methods of cognition.

3. Methodology of scientific research of a specific science, the content of which includes philosophical, general scientific, private and special methods of cognition.

Philosophical and general scientific methods of scientific research.

Among the general (philosophical) methods, the most famous are dialectical and metaphysical. These methods can be associated with various philosophical systems. Thus, the dialectical method was combined with materialism by Karl Marx, and by G.V.F. Hegel - with idealism. Essentially, every philosophical concept has a methodological function, is a kind of way of thinking. Therefore, the philosophical methods are not limited to the two named. These also include methods such as analytical (characteristic of modern analytical philosophy), intuitive, phenomenological, hermeneutic (understanding), etc.

Dialectics (from the Greek dialektike - the art of having a conversation, an argument) is a teaching about the most general laws of the development of nature, society and cognition and a universal method of thinking and action based on this teaching.

When studying objects and phenomena, dialectics recommends proceeding from the following principles:

1. Consider the objects under study in the light of dialectical laws:

a) the unity and struggle of opposites;

b) the transition of quantitative changes to qualitative ones;

c) negation of negation.

2. Describe, explain and predict the studied phenomena and processes, relying on philosophical categories: general, special and singular; content and form; entities and phenomena; possibilities and reality; necessary and accidental; cause and effect.

3. Treat the object of research as an objective reality.

4. Consider the objects and phenomena under study:

a) comprehensively;

b) in universal connection and interdependence;

c) in continuous change, development;

d) specifically, historically.

5. Test the acquired knowledge in practice.

In the process of cognition and practice, the metaphysical method is also often used, which is the opposite of the dialectical method. The term "metaphysics" (literally "what follows after physics") was introduced in the 1st century. BC. the commentator of the philosophy of Aristotle A. Rhodes. Systematizing the works of the great ancient Greek thinker, he placed, after physics, those works that dealt with general issues of being and cognition, and called it "metaphysics".

In modern social science, the concept of "metaphysics" has three main meanings:

Philosophy as a science of the universal, the original prototype of which was the teaching of Aristotle;

A special philosophical science is ontology, the doctrine of being as such, regardless of its particular conclusions and abstractions from questions of theory and logic of knowledge. In this sense, this concept was used both in the past (Descartes, Leibniz, Spinoza, etc.) and in the present. Representatives of modern Western science (Agassi and others) see the task of metaphysics in creating a picture of the world, certain models of reality, ontological schemes based on the generalization of particular scientific knowledge;

A philosophical way of knowing (thinking) and acting, opposing the dialectical method as its antipode.

General scientific research methods, like other methods, are classified according to the degree of generality and scope. They were widely developed and applied in science in the XX century. General scientific methods act as a kind of intermediate methodology between philosophy and the fundamental theoretical and methodological provisions of the special sciences. General scientific concepts include such concepts as “information”, “model”, “structure”, “function”, “system”, “element”, “probability”, “optimality”.

On the basis of general scientific concepts and concepts, appropriate methods and principles of cognition are formed, which provide communication and optimal interaction of philosophy with special scientific knowledge and its methods. General scientific methods include systemic, structural-functional, cybernetic, probabilistic, modeling, formalization, etc.

Recently, such a general scientific discipline as synergetics has been intensively developing - the theory of self-organization and development of individual integral systems of any origin - natural, social, cognitive (cognitive). The basic concepts of synergetics are “order”, “chaos”, “nonlinearity”, “uncertainty”, “instability”, etc. Synergetic concepts are closely related and intertwined with a number of philosophical categories, especially such as “being”, “whole”, “ randomness "," opportunity ", etc.

It should be noted that in the structure of general scientific methodology, three levels of methods and techniques of scientific research are most often distinguished:

Empirical research methods - observation, experiment, comparison, description, measurement;

Methods of theoretical research - modeling, formalization, idealization, axiomatic method, hypothetical-deductive method, ascent from the abstract to the concrete, etc .;

General logical methods of scientific research: analysis and synthesis, induction, deduction and analogy, abstraction, generalization, idealization, formalization, probabilistic and statistical methods, systems approach, etc.

An important role of general scientific approaches is that, due to their "intermediate character", they mediate the mutual transitions of philosophical and particular scientific, disciplinary, interdisciplinary knowledge and the corresponding methods of scientific research.

Private and special methods of scientific research.

They are called private because they are used in related sciences, have specific features that depend on the object and conditions of cognition.

Private methods of scientific research are determined primarily by the specific nature of individual forms of motion of matter. Each science that is at least somewhat developed, having its own special subject and its theoretical principles, applies its own special methods arising from one or another understanding of the essence of its object.

Private scientific methodology is most often defined as a set of methods, principles and research techniques used in a particular science. They usually include mechanics, physics, chemistry, geology, biology, social sciences.

Special research methods are used only in one branch of scientific knowledge, or their application is limited to several narrow areas of knowledge. For example, to special methods of forensic

ki include the methods of traceological, handwriting, odorological, forensic ballistics, anthropometric, etc.

Theoretical and empirical methods of scientific research.

Consider the division of research methods into empirical and theoretical in the following grouping:

Theoretical methods:

Methods - cognitive actions: identifying and resolving contradictions, posing a problem, building a hypothesis, etc.;

Operational methods: analysis, synthesis, comparison, abstraction and concretization, etc.

Empirical methods:

Methods - cognitive actions: examination, monitoring, experiment, etc .;

Methods-operations: observation, measurement, interrogation, testing, etc.

Let's consider briefly the main ones.

Theoretical methods-operations are defined by the main mental operations, which are: analysis and synthesis, comparison, abstraction and concretization, generalization, formalization, induction and deduction, idealization, analogy, modeling, thought experiment.

Analysis is the decomposition of the investigated whole into parts, the allocation of individual signs and qualities of a phenomenon, a process or relations of phenomena, processes. Analysis procedures are an organic component of any scientific research and usually form its first phase, when the researcher moves from an undivided description of the object under study to the identification of its structure, composition, its properties and features.

Synthesis is the combination of various elements, aspects of an object into a single whole (system). Synthesis is not a simple summation, but a semantic connection. Synthesis is the opposite of analysis, with which it is inextricably linked.

Comparison is a cognitive operation that underlies judgments about the similarity and difference of objects. With the help of comparison, the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of objects are revealed, their classification, ordering and evaluation are carried out.

Abstraction is one of the main mental operations that allows you to mentally isolate and turn into an independent object of consideration individual aspects, properties or states of an object in its pure form.

Concretization is a process opposite to abstraction, that is, finding an integral, interconnected, multilateral and complex. The researcher initially forms various abstractions, and then, on their basis, through concretization, reproduces this integrity (mental concrete), but already at a qualitatively different level of cognition of the concrete.

Generalization is one of the main cognitive mental operations, consisting in the selection and fixation of relatively stable, invariant properties of objects and their relationships. The function of generalization consists in ordering the variety of objects, their classification.

Formalization is the display of the results of thinking in precise concepts or statements. It is, as it were, a "second order" mental operation. Formalization is contrasted with intuitive thinking.

In scientific conclusions, one judgment comes from another, on the basis of already existing conclusions: inductive (induction) and deductive (deduction).

Induction is the inference of particular objects, phenomena to a general conclusion, from individual facts to generalizations.

Deduction is an inference from the general to the particular, from general judgments to particular conclusions.

Idealization is the mental construction of ideas about objects that do not exist or are unrealizable in reality, but such for which there are prototypes in the real world. Examples of concepts that are the result of idealization can be the mathematical concepts "point", "straight line". Concepts that are the result of idealization are said to be thought of as idealized (or ideal) objects.

Consider theoretical methods (methods - cognitive actions). The dialectic considered earlier is a general philosophical, general scientific method.

The deductive method (synonym - axiomatic method) is a method of constructing a scientific theory, in which it is based on some of the initial provisions of the axiom (synonym - postulates), from which all the main provisions of this theory (theorem) are derived by purely logical means through proof. This method is used to build theories in mathematics, mathematical logic, theoretical physics;

The second method has not received a name in the literature, but it certainly exists, since in all other sciences, except for the above, theories are built according to the method, which we will call inductive-deductive: first, an empirical basis is accumulated, on the basis of which theoretical generalizations (induction) are built, which can line up in several levels, and then these obtained generalizations can be extended to all phenomena and objects covered by this theory (deduction). The inductive-deductive method is used to construct most theories in the natural sciences: physics, chemistry, biology, geology, geography, psychology, pedagogy, etc.

Now let's look at the main empirical methods (methods-operations).

Observation is the most informative research method. This is the only method that allows you to see all sides of the studied phenomena and processes. Depending on the purpose of the observation, it can be scientific or unscientific. Observation as a method has a number of significant disadvantages. So subjective human opinion can make its own adjustments, therefore observation is often accompanied by another empirical method - measurement.

Measurement is used everywhere, in any human activity. You can distinguish a certain structure of the dimension, which includes the following elements:

a cognizing subject, carrying out a measurement for certain cognitive purposes;

measuring instruments, among which there can be both devices and instruments designed by man, and objects and processes given by nature;

the object of measurement, that is, the measured value or property to which the comparison procedure is applicable;

a method or method of measurement, which is a set of practical actions, operations performed using measuring instruments, and also includes certain logical and computational procedures;

measurement result, which is a named number, expressed using the appropriate names or signs.

Polling is an empirical method that applies only to social sciences and humanities. The survey method is divided into oral and written survey.

Testing is an empirical method, a diagnostic procedure that consists in the use of tests (from the English test - a task, a test). Tests are usually given to the subjects either in the form of a list of questions that require short and unambiguous answers, or in the form of problems, the solution of which does not take much time. Tests are differentiated into blank, instrumental (for example, on a computer) and practical; for individual use and group.

Next, we will consider empirical action methods, which are based on the use of methods of operations and their combinations. These methods can be divided into two classes. The first class is methods of studying an object without transforming it. Let's call them object tracking methods. These include: survey, monitoring, study and generalization of experience.

Another class of methods is associated with the researcher's active transformation of the object under study - let's call these methods transformative methods - this class will include methods such as experimental work and experiment.

Inspection is the study of the object under study with one or another measure of depth and detail, depending on the tasks set by the researcher. There are internal (enterprise survey) and external (survey of the economic situation in the region, labor market, etc.) surveys. The survey is carried out through the methods-operations of empirical research: observation, study and analysis of documentation, oral and written interviews, etc.

Monitoring is constant supervision, regular monitoring of the state of an object, the values of its individual parameters in order to study the dynamics of ongoing processes, predict certain events, as well as prevent undesirable phenomena. For example, environmental monitoring, synoptic monitoring, etc.

Experiment is a general empirical research method (method-action), the essence of which is that phenomena and processes are studied in strictly controlled and controlled conditions.

There are many classifications of experiments in the literature. Depending on the nature of the object under study, it is customary to distinguish between physical, chemical, psychological and others experiments. According to the main purpose, experiments are divided into verification and search experiments. Depending on the nature and variety of the means and conditions of the experiment and the methods of using these means, one can distinguish between direct (if the means are used directly to study the object), model (if a model is used that replaces the object), field (in natural conditions), laboratory (in artificial conditions ) experiment.

Conclusion

Thus, I have reviewed the main methods of scientific research. In conclusion, I would like to say that before starting to carry out research work, you should mainly choose a research method.

LIST OF USED SOURCES

V.V. Kraevsky, V.M. Polonsky Methodology for a teacher: theory and practice. - Volgograd: Change, 2006.

Ozhegov S.I., Shvedova N.Yu. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. M., 1999.S. 354; Modern vocabulary foreign words... SPb., 1994.

Fundamentals of Scientific Research: Textbook. / Ed. IN AND. Krutova, V.V. Popov. M., 2006.

Sabitov R.A. Fundamentals of Scientific Research: Textbook. allowance / Chelyab. state un-t. Chelyabinsk, 2005.

1 See: Fundamentals of Scientific Research: Textbook. / Ed. IN AND. Krutova, V.V. Popov. M., 2004.

2 See: Ozhegov S.I., Shvedova N.Yu. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. M., 1999.S. 354; Modern dictionary of foreign words. SPb., 1994.S. 376.

research usually divide ... by three large groups: a) methods empirical research... Observation - active ...

The method of scientific research is a way of knowing objective reality. The method is a certain sequence of actions, techniques, operations.

Depending on the content of the studied objects, the methods of natural science and methods of social and humanitarian research are distinguished.

Research methods are classified by branches of science: mathematical, biological, medical, socio-economic, legal, etc.

Depending on the level of knowledge, methods of the empirical, theoretical and metatheoretical levels are distinguished.

To methods empirical level include observation, description, comparison, counting, measurement, questionnaire, interview, testing, experiment, simulation, etc.

TO theoretical methods include axiomatic, hypothetical (hypothetical-deductive), formalization, abstraction, general logical methods (analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, analogy), etc.

Meta-theoretical level methods are dialectical, metaphysical, hermeneutic, etc. Some scientists include the method of system analysis at this level, while others include it among general logical methods.

Depending on the scope and degree of generality, methods are distinguished:

a) universal (philosophical), acting in all sciences and at all stages of knowledge;

b) general scientific, which can be applied in the humanities, natural and technical sciences;

c) private - for related sciences;

d) special - for a specific science, an area of scientific knowledge.

From the considered concept of the method, the concepts of technology, procedures and methods of scientific research should be distinguished.

Research technique is understood as a set of special techniques for using a particular method, and research procedure is a certain sequence of actions, a method of organizing research.

A technique is a set of methods and techniques of cognition.

a set of methods used in any field of activity (science, politics, etc.);

the doctrine of the scientific method of cognition.

Each science has its own methodology.

There are the following levels of methodology:

1. General methodology, which is universal in relation to all sciences and the content of which includes philosophical and general scientific methods of cognition.

2. A private methodology of scientific research, for example, for a group of related legal sciences, which is formed by philosophical, general scientific and private methods of cognition, for example, state-legal phenomena.

3. Methodology of scientific research of a specific science, the content of which includes philosophical, general scientific, private and special methods of cognition.

Among general (philosophical) methods the most famous are dialectical and metaphysical. These methods can be associated with various philosophical systems. Thus, the dialectical method was combined with materialism by Karl Marx, and by G.V.F. Hegel - with idealism.

Russian legal scholars use the dialectical method to study state and legal phenomena, for the laws of dialectics are of universal significance, inherent in the development of nature, society and thinking.

When studying objects and phenomena, dialectics recommends proceeding from the following principles:

1. Consider the objects under study in the light of dialectical laws:

a) the unity and struggle of opposites,

b) the transition of quantitative changes to qualitative ones,

c) negation of negation.

3. Treat the object of research as an objective reality.

4. Consider the objects and phenomena under study:

Comprehensively,

in universal connection and interdependence,

in continuous change, development,

specifically, historically.

5. Test the acquired knowledge in practice.

Everything general scientific methods for analysis, it is advisable to divide into three groups: general logical, theoretical and empirical.

General logical methods are analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, analogy.

Synthesis- this is a combination of individual sides, parts of the research object into a single whole.

Induction- This is the movement of thought (cognition) from facts, individual cases to a general situation. Inductive reasoning "leads" to the idea, to the general.

Deduction - it is the deduction of the individual, the particular from any general position, the movement of thought (cognition) from general statements to statements about individual objects or phenomena. By means of deductive reasoning, they "derive" a certain thought from other thoughts.

To methods theoretical level include axiomatic, hypothetical, formalization, abstraction, generalization, ascent from the abstract to the concrete, historical, method of systems analysis.

Axiomatic method - a method of research, which consists in the fact that some statements are accepted without proof and then, according to certain logical rules, the rest of the knowledge is derived from them.

Hypothetical method - a way of research using a scientific hypothesis, i.e. assumptions about the cause that causes this effect, or about the existence of some phenomenon or object.

A variation of this method is a hypothetical-deductive method of research, the essence of which is to create a system of deductively linked hypotheses, from which statements about empirical facts are derived.

The structure of the hypothetical-deductive method includes:

a) putting forward guesses (assumptions) about the causes and patterns of the studied phenomena and objects,

b) selection of the most probable, plausible from the set of guesses,

c) derivation from the selected assumption (premise) of the consequence (conclusion) using deduction,

d) experimental verification of the consequences derived from the hypothesis.

Formalization- display of a phenomenon or object in the symbolic form of any artificial language (for example, logic, mathematics, chemistry) and the study of this phenomenon or object by operations with the corresponding signs. The use of an artificial formalized language in scientific research makes it possible to eliminate such shortcomings of a natural language as ambiguity, inaccuracy, and uncertainty.

When formalizing, instead of reasoning about the objects of research, they operate with signs (formulas). By operations with the formulas of artificial languages, it is possible to obtain new formulas, to prove the truth of any position.

Formalization is the basis for algorithmicization and programming, without which the computerization of knowledge and the research process cannot do.

Abstraction- mental distraction from some properties and relationships of the studied subject and the selection of properties and relationships of interest to the researcher. Usually, when abstracting, the secondary properties and connections of the object under study are separated from the essential properties and connections.

Types of abstraction: identification, i.e. highlighting the common properties and relationships of the studied subjects, establishing the identical in them, abstracting from the differences between them, combining objects into a special class; isolation, i.e. highlighting some properties and relationships that are considered as independent research subjects. In theory, other types of abstraction are distinguished: potential feasibility, actual infinity.

Generalization- establishment of general properties and relationships of objects and phenomena; the definition of a general concept, which reflects the essential, basic features of objects or phenomena of a given class. At the same time, generalization can be expressed in the selection of not essential, but any signs of an object or phenomenon. This method of scientific research is based on the philosophical categories of the general, the particular and the singular.

Historical method is to identify historical facts and on this basis in such a mental reconstruction of the historical process, in which the logic of its movement is revealed. It involves the study of the emergence and development of research objects in chronological order.

Climbing from the abstract to the concrete as a method of scientific knowledge consists in the fact that the researcher first finds the main connection of the studied subject (phenomenon), then, tracing how it is modified in different conditions, opens new connections and in this way reflects its essence in its entirety.

System method consists in the study of a system (i.e. a certain set of material or ideal objects), the connections of its components and their connections with the external environment. It turns out that these relationships and interactions lead to the emergence of new properties of the system, which are absent in its constituent objects.

TO empirical methods include: observation, description, counting, measurement, comparison, experiment, simulation.

Observation Is a method of cognition based on the direct perception of the properties of objects and phenomena with the help of the senses. As a result of observation, the researcher gains knowledge about the external properties and relationships of objects and phenomena.

Depending on the position of the researcher in relation to the object of study, simple and included observation are distinguished. The first is observation from the outside, when the researcher is a person who is outside the object and is not a participant in the activities of the observed. The second is characterized by the fact that the researcher is openly or incognito included in the group, its activity as a participant.

If the observation was carried out in a natural setting, then it is called field observation, and if the conditions environment, the situation was specially created by the researcher, then it will be considered laboratory. Observation results can be recorded in protocols, diaries, cards, on film and in other ways.

Description- This is the fixation of the features of the object under study, which are established, for example, by observation or measurement. Description is:

direct, when the researcher directly perceives and indicates the attributes of the object;

mediated, when the researcher notes the signs of the object, which were perceived by other persons.

Check- This is the definition of quantitative ratios of research objects or parameters that characterize their properties. The quantitative method is widely used in statistics.

Measurement Is the determination of the numerical value of a certain quantity by comparing it with a standard. In forensics, measurement is used to determine: the distance between objects; the speed of movement of vehicles, a person or other objects; the duration of certain phenomena and processes, temperature, size, weight, etc.

Comparison- This is a comparison of features inherent in two or more objects, the establishment of a difference between them or finding common in them.

In scientific research, this method is used, for example, to compare the state and legal institutions of different states. This method is based on the study, comparison of similar objects, identifying common and different in them, advantages and disadvantages.

Experiment- this is an artificial reproduction of a phenomenon, a process under given conditions, during which the hypothesis put forward is tested.

Experiments can be classified for various reasons:

by branches of scientific research - physical, biological, chemical, social, etc .;

by the nature of the interaction of the research tool with the object - conventional (experimental means directly interact with the object under study) and model (the model replaces the research object). The latter are divided into mental (mental, imaginary) and material (real).

This classification is not exhaustive.

Modeling- this is the acquisition of knowledge about the object of research with the help of its substitutes - an analogue, a model. A model is understood as mentally or materially existing analogue object.

Based on the similarity between the model and the modeled object, conclusions about it are transferred by analogy to this object.

In modeling theory, there are:

1) ideal (mental, symbolic) models, for example, in the form of drawings, notes, signs, mathematical interpretation;

2) material (natural, real- physical) models, for example, models, dummies, objects-analogs for experiments during examinations, reconstruction of a person's external appearance according to the method of M.M. Gerasimov.

The form of existence and development of science is scientific research. In Art. 2 of the Federal Law of the Russian Federation of August 23, 1996 "On Science and State Scientific and Technical Policy" the following definition is given: scientific (research) activity – is an activity aimed at obtaining and applying new knowledge.

In the general case, scientific research is usually understood as an activity aimed at a comprehensive study of an object, process or phenomenon, their structure and connections, as well as obtaining and putting into practice results useful for a person. Any scientific research should have its own subject and object, which define the area of research.

Object scientific research is a material or ideal system, and as subject there may be the structure of this system, patterns of interaction and development of its elements, etc.

Scientific research is characterized by purposefulness, therefore, each researcher must clearly formulate the purpose of his research. The purpose of scientific research is the projected result of research work. This can be a comprehensive study of any process or phenomenon, connections and relationships using the principles and methods of cognition developed in science, as well as the receipt and implementation of useful results for a person into practice.

Scientific research is classified for various reasons.

By source of funding distinguish

scientific research budgetary,

economic contract

and unfunded.

Budgetary research is financed from the budget of the Russian Federation or the budgets of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation. Contractual studies are financed by contracting organizations under business contracts. Unfunded research can be carried out on the initiative of a scientist, an individual teacher's plan.

In normative acts on science, scientific research is divided according to intended purpose on

Fundamental,

· Applied.

In the Federal Law of August 23, 1996 "On Science and State Scientific and Technical Policy" the concepts of fundamental and applied scientific research are given.

Basic scientific research Is an experimental or theoretical activity aimed at obtaining new knowledge about the basic laws of the structure, functioning and development of man, society, and the natural environment. For example, research on the laws governing the formation and functioning of the rule of law or on world, regional and Russian economic trends can be classified as fundamental.

Applied research- This is research aimed primarily at applying new knowledge to achieve practical goals and solve specific problems. In other words, they are aimed at solving the problems of using scientific knowledge obtained as a result of fundamental research in the practical activities of people. For example, as applied, you can consider the work on the methodology for evaluating investment projects depending on their types or work related to marketing research.

Search engines called scientific research aimed at determining the prospects of work on a topic, finding ways to solve scientific problems.

Development is called research that is aimed at putting into practice the results of specific fundamental and applied research.

By terms of execution scientific research can be divided into

Long-term,

Short-term

· And express research.

Depending on the forms and methods of research, some authors distinguish experimental, methodological, descriptive, experimental-analytical, historical and biographical research and research of a mixed type.

In the theory of knowledge, there are two levels of research : theoretical and empirical.

Theoretical level research is characterized by the predominance of logical methods of cognition. At this level, the obtained facts are investigated, processed with the help of logical concepts, inferences, laws and other forms of thinking.

Here the studied objects are mentally analyzed, generalized, their essence, internal connections, laws of development are comprehended. At this level, cognition with the help of the senses (empiricism) may be present, but it is subordinate.

The structural components of theoretical knowledge are the problem, hypothesis and theory.

Problem- This is a complex theoretical or practical problem, the solutions to which are unknown or not fully known. Distinguish between undeveloped (pre-problem) and developed problems.

Underdeveloped problems are characterized by the following features: 1) they arose on the basis of a certain theory, concept; 2) these are difficult, non-standard tasks; 3) their solution is aimed at eliminating the contradiction that has arisen in cognition; 4) ways of solving the problem are not known. Developed problems have more or less specific indications on the way to solve them.

Hypothesis there is an assumption that requires verification and proof about the cause, which causes a certain effect, about the structure of the objects under study and the nature of the internal and external connections of structural elements.

A scientific hypothesis must meet the following requirements:

1) relevance, i.e. relevance to the facts on which it relies;

2) empirically verifiable, comparability with observation or experiment data (with the exception of unverifiable hypotheses);

3) compatibility with existing scientific knowledge;

4) possession of explanatory power, i.e. a certain number of facts and consequences confirming it should be derived from the hypothesis.

The hypothesis from which it is derived will have a greater explanatory power. the largest number facts;

5) simplicity, i.e. it should not contain any arbitrary assumptions, subjectivist layers.

Distinguish between descriptive, explanatory and predictive hypotheses.

A descriptive hypothesis is an assumption about the essential properties of objects, the nature of the connections between separate elements the object under study.

An explanatory hypothesis is an assumption of causality.

A predictive hypothesis is an assumption about the trends and regularities in the development of the research object.

Theory Is a logically organized knowledge, a conceptual system of knowledge that adequately and holistically reflects a certain area of reality. It has the following properties:

1. Theory is one of the forms of rational thought activity.

2. Theory is an integral system of reliable knowledge.

3. She not only describes the totality of facts, but also explains them, i.e. reveals the origin and development of phenomena and processes, their internal and external connections, causal and other dependencies, etc.

Theories are classified according to the subject of research. On this basis, social, mathematical, physical, chemical, psychological, economic and other theories are distinguished. There are other classifications of theories.

In modern methodology of science, the following structural elements of the theory are distinguished:

1) initial foundations (concepts, laws, axioms, principles, etc.);

2) an idealized object, i.e. theoretical model of some part of reality, essential properties and connections of the studied phenomena and objects;

3) the logic of the theory - a set of certain rules and methods of proof;

4) philosophical attitudes and social values;

5) a set of laws and regulations derived as a consequence of this theory.

The structure of the theory is formed by concepts, judgments, laws, scientific provisions, teachings, ideas and other elements.

Concept Is a thought that reflects essential and necessary signs a certain set of objects or phenomena.

Category- a general, fundamental concept that reflects the most essential properties and relationships of objects and phenomena. Categories are philosophical, general scientific and related to a separate branch of science. Examples of categories in legal sciences: law, offense, legal responsibility, state, political system, crime.

^ Scientific term Is a word or combination of words that denotes a concept used in science.

The set of concepts (terms) that are used in a particular science forms it conceptual apparatus.

Judgment Is a thought in which something is affirmed or denied.

Principle- this is the guiding idea, the basic starting point of the theory. Principles are theoretical and methodological. At the same time, one cannot ignore the methodological principles of dialectical materialism: treat reality as an objective reality; to distinguish essential features of the studied object from secondary ones; consider objects and phenomena in continuous change, etc.

Axiom- this is a position that is original, unprovable and from which, according to the established rules, other provisions are derived. For example, at present, it is necessary to recognize as axiomatic the statements that there is no crime without an indication in the law, ignorance of the law does not exempt from responsibility for its violation, the accused is not obliged to prove his innocence.

Law- this is an objective, essential, internal, necessary and stable connection between phenomena, processes. Laws can be classified on various grounds. So, according to the main spheres of reality, one can distinguish the laws of nature, society, thinking and cognition; according to the scope of action - general, general and particular.

Regularity- it is: 1) the totality of the action of many laws; 2) a system of essential, necessary general connections, each of which constitutes a separate law. So, there are certain patterns of movement of crime on a global scale: 1) its absolute and relative growth; 2) the backlog of social control over it.

Position- scientific statement, formulated thought. An example of a scientific position is the statement that the rule of law

consists of three elements: hypothesis, disposition and sanction.

^ Idea- it is: 1) a new intuitive explanation of an event or phenomenon;

2) the defining pivotal position in theory.

Concept Is a system of theoretical views united by a scientific idea (scientific ideas). Theoretical concepts determine the existence and content of many legal norms and institutions.

The empirical level of research is characterized by the predominance of sensory cognition (study of the external world through the senses). At this level, the forms of theoretical knowledge are present, but have a subordinate meaning.

The interaction of the empirical and theoretical levels of research is that: 1) a set of facts constitutes the practical basis of a theory or hypothesis; 2) facts can confirm the theory or refute it; 3) a scientific fact is always permeated with theory, since it cannot be formulated without a system of concepts, interpreted without theoretical concepts; 4) empirical research in modern science is predetermined, guided by theory. The structure of the empirical level of research is made up of facts, empirical generalizations and laws (dependencies).

The concept " fact»Is used in several meanings: 1) an objective event, a result related to objective reality (fact of reality) or to the sphere of consciousness and cognition (fact of consciousness); 2) knowledge about any event, phenomenon, the reliability of which has been proven (truth); 3) a sentence that captures the knowledge obtained during observations and experiments.

^ Empirical generalization Is a system of certain scientific facts. For example, as a result of studying criminal cases of a certain category and generalizing the investigative and judicial practice, it is possible to identify typical mistakes allowed by the courts when qualifying crimes and imposing criminal penalties on the guilty.

^ Empirical laws reflect regularity in phenomena, stability in relations between observed phenomena. These laws are not theoretical knowledge. Unlike theoretical laws, which reveal essential connections of reality, empirical laws reflect a more superficial level of dependence.

^ 1.2 Stages of research work

For scientific research to be successful, it must be properly organized, planned and carried out in a specific sequence.

These plans and the sequence of actions depend on the type, object and goals of the scientific research. So, if it is carried out on technical topics, then first the main preplanned document is developed - a feasibility study, and then theoretical and experimental research is carried out, a scientific and technical report is drawn up and the results of the work are introduced into production.

In socio-legal research, five stages are distinguished: 1) preparation of the program; 2) sociological observation (collection of empirical information); 3) processing and generalization of the received data; 4) scientific analysis and explanation of data; 5) summary of the results.

With regard to the work of students on economic topics, the following successive stages of their implementation can be outlined:

1) preparatory;

2) carrying out theoretical and empirical research;

3) work on the manuscript and its design;

4) implementation of the results of scientific research.

It seems necessary to first give a general description of each stage of research work, and then in more detail consider those of them that are of great importance for the implementation of scientific research by students.

^ Preparatory (first) stage includes: theme selection; justification of the need to conduct a study on it; definition of hypotheses, goals and objectives of the study; development of a research plan or program; preparation of research tools (tools).

First, the topic of scientific research is formulated and the reasons for its development are substantiated. By preliminary acquaintance with the literature and materials of previous studies, it becomes clear to what extent the issues of the topic have been studied and what are the results obtained. Particular attention should be paid to questions to which there are no answers at all or they are insufficient.

A list of normative acts, domestic and foreign literature is compiled, when writing dissertation research - a list of dissertation topics, and if it is impossible to see the entire text of the dissertation, in some cases, you can limit yourself to studying the author's abstracts of dissertations.

The research methodology is being developed. R&D tools are being prepared in the form of questionnaires, questionnaires, interview forms, observation programs, etc. For more details on the process of performing R&D in accordance with GOST 15.101-98, see Appendix A.

Pilot studies can be conducted to verify their suitability.

^ Research (second) stage consists of a systematic study of literature on the topic, statistical information and archival materials; carrying out theoretical and empirical research, including the collection of socio-economic and statistical information, materials of industrial practice; processing, generalization and analysis of the obtained data; explanations of new scientific facts, argumentation and formulation of provisions, conclusions and practical recommendations and suggestions.

^ Third stage includes: determination of the composition (construction, internal structure) of the work; clarification of the title, titles of chapters and paragraphs; preparation of a draft manuscript and its editing; design of the text, including the list of used literature and applications.

^ Fourth stage consists of the implementation of the research results into practice and the author's support of the implemented developments. Scientific research does not always end with this stage, but sometimes students' scientific work (for example, diploma works) and the results of dissertation research are recommended for implementation in the practical activities of governing bodies and in the educational process.

^ 1.3 Method and methodology of scientific research

Scientific research method- this is a way of knowing objective reality. The method is a certain sequence of actions, techniques, operations.

Depending on the content of the studied objects, the methods of natural science and methods of social and humanitarian research are distinguished. Research methods are classified by branches of science: mathematical, biological, medical, socio-economic, legal, etc.

Depending on the level of knowledge, methods of the empirical, theoretical and metatheoretical levels are distinguished.

TO methods of the empirical level include

Observation,

· description,

Comparison,

Measurement,

Questionnaire survey,

· interview,

Testing, experiment,

· Modeling, etc.

TO theoretical methods are considered

§ axiomatic,

§ hypothetical (hypothetical-deductive),

§ formalization,

§ abstraction,

§ general logical methods (analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, analogy), etc.

Depending on the scope and degree of generality, methods are distinguished:

1) general (philosophical), acting in all sciences and at all stages of knowledge;

2) general scientific, which can be applied in the humanities, natural and technical sciences;

3) private - for related sciences;

4) special - for a specific science, an area of scientific knowledge.

From the considered concept of the method, the concepts of technology, procedures and methods of scientific research should be distinguished.

Under research technique understand a set of special techniques for using a particular method, and by research procedure- a certain sequence of actions, a method of organizing the research.

Methodology Is a set of methods and techniques of cognition. For example, the methodology for assessing the effectiveness of investments is understood as a set of rules, principles, formulas and techniques that allow, under certain restrictions, to correctly calculate the effectiveness of investment projects.

Any scientific research is carried out by certain techniques and methods, according to certain rules. The doctrine of the system of these techniques, methods and rules is called methodology th... However, the concept of "methodology" in the literature is used in two meanings: 1) a set of methods used in any field of activity (science, politics, etc.); 2) the doctrine of the scientific method of cognition.

The following levels of methodology are distinguished:

1. General methodology, which is universal in relation to all sciences and the content of which includes philosophical and general scientific methods of cognition.

2. A private research methodology for a group of related economic sciences, which is formed by philosophical, general scientific and private methods of cognition, for example, economic relations in the production process.

3. Methodology of scientific research of a specific science, the content of which includes philosophical, general scientific, private and special methods of cognition, for example, the methodology of political economy, methodology of management.

^ 1.3.1 Philosophical and general scientific methods of scientific research

1. Consider the objects under study in the light of dialectical laws:

a) the unity and struggle of opposites;

b) the transition of quantitative changes to qualitative ones;

c) negation of negation.

3. Treat the object of research as an objective reality.

4. Consider the objects and phenomena under study: a) comprehensively; b) in universal connection and interdependence; c) in continuous change, development; d) specifically, historically.

5. Test the acquired knowledge in practice.

Everything general scientific methods for analysis, it is advisable to divide into three groups: general logical, theoretical and empirical.

^ General logical methods are analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, analogy.

Analysis- This is the dismemberment, decomposition of the object of research into its component parts. It lies at the heart of the analytical research method. The types of analysis are classification and periodization. For example, the method of analysis is used in the study and classification of costs, in the formation of sources of profit, etc.

Synthesis- this is a combination of individual sides, parts of the research object into a single whole. Thus, the combination of all stages of creation and commercial sale of products was combined into a relatively new discipline "Innovation Management".

Induction- This is the movement of thought (cognition) from facts, individual cases to a general situation. Inductive reasoning "leads" to the idea, to the general. For example, the method of induction is used in jurisprudence to establish causal links between phenomena, deeds and the resulting consequences.

Deduction - it is the derivation of the singular, particular from any general position; movement of thought (cognition) from general statements to statements about individual objects or phenomena. By means of deductive reasoning, they "derive" a certain thought from other thoughts.

Analogy- this is a way of obtaining knowledge about objects and phenomena on the basis of the fact that they have similarities with others; a reasoning in which, from the similarity of the studied objects in some features, a conclusion is made about their similarity in other features. For example, in jurisprudence, gaps in legislation can be filled by applying the law by analogy. The analogy of the law is the application of the rule of law regulating a similar attitude to a social relation that is not regulated by the rule of law.

^ 1.3.2 Theoretical level methods

To methods theoretical level include axiomatic, hypothetical, formalization, abstraction, generalization, ascent from the abstract to the concrete, historical, method of systems analysis.

^ Axiomatic method - a method of research, which consists in the fact that some statements (axioms, postulates) are accepted without proof and then, according to certain logical rules, the rest of the knowledge is derived from them.

^ Hypothetical method - a way of research using a scientific hypothesis, i.e. assumptions about the cause that causes this effect, or about the existence of some phenomenon or object.

The structure of the hypothetical-deductive method includes:

1) putting forward guesses (assumptions) about the causes and patterns of the studied phenomena and objects;

2) selection of the most probable, plausible from the set of guesses;

3) derivation from the selected assumption (premise) of the consequence (conclusion) using deduction;

4) experimental verification of the consequences derived from the hypothesis.

Formalization is the basis for algorithmicization and programming, without which the computerization of knowledge and the research process cannot do.

An example of abstraction is the process of education economic concepts... These concepts are meaningful scientific abstractions. They do not reflect all the essential properties of economic phenomena and contain only those features that are essential in a certain respect.

^ Historical method consists in identifying historical facts and, on this basis, in such a mental recreation of the historical process, in which the logic of its movement is revealed. It involves the study of the emergence and development of research objects in chronological order.

^ Climbing from the abstract to the concrete as a method of scientific knowledge consists in the fact that the researcher first finds the main connection of the studied subject (phenomenon), then, tracing how it is modified in different conditions, opens new connections and in this way reflects its essence in its entirety.

^ System method consists in the study of a system (i.e. a certain set of material or ideal objects), the connections of its components and their connections with the external environment. It turns out that these relationships and interactions lead to the emergence of new properties of the system, which are absent in its constituent objects. The use of this method allowed scientists to identify the following legal systems of the world: Anglo-Saxon, Romano-Germanic, socialist, religious, customary law.

Considering the activities of an organization as a system (with subsystems of personnel management, financial management, quality management, etc.) located in a more general economic system, researchers establish the features of the functioning of this system or project general, known patterns, taking into account the characteristics of this system.

^ 1.3.3 Empirical level methods

TO empirical methods include: observation, description, counting, measurement, comparison, experiment, simulation.

As a method of scientific research, observation is used, for example, to collect sociological information or as a method of setting labor standards (known, in particular, as "photography of the working day").

If the observation was carried out in a natural setting, then it is called field observation, and if the environmental conditions, the situation were specially created by the researcher, then it will be considered laboratory. Observation results can be recorded in protocols, diaries, cards, on film and in other ways.

Description- This is the fixation of the features of the object under study, which are established, for example, by observation or measurement. Description is: 1) direct, when the researcher directly perceives and indicates the attributes of the object; 2) indirect, when the researcher notes the signs of an object that were perceived by other persons (for example, the characteristics of a UFO).

Check- This is the definition of quantitative ratios of research objects or parameters that characterize their properties. The quantitative method is widely used in economic statistics to study the performance of individual organizations and economic systems.

Measurement Is the determination of the numerical value of a certain quantity by comparing it with a standard. In quality management, measurements are used to quantify the quality of objects. These issues are dealt with in a special area of science - qualimetry.

Comparison- This is a comparison of features inherent in two or more objects, the establishment of a difference between them or finding common in them.

In scientific research, this method is used, for example, to compare the economic systems of different states. This method is based on the study, comparison of similar objects, identifying common and different in them, advantages and disadvantages. In this way, it is possible to solve the practical tasks of improving state institutions, domestic legislation and the practice of its application.

Experiment- this is an artificial reproduction of a phenomenon, a process under given conditions, during which the hypothesis put forward is tested.

Experiments can be classified on various grounds: by branches of scientific research - physical, biological, chemical, social, etc .; by the nature of the interaction of the research tool with the object - conventional (experimental means directly interact with the object under study) and model (the model replaces the research object). The latter are divided into mental (mental, imaginary) and material (real). This classification is not exhaustive.

Modeling- this is the acquisition of knowledge about the object of research with the help of its substitutes - an analogue, a model. A model is understood as a mentally represented or materially existing analogue of an object. Based on the similarity between the model and the modeled object, conclusions about it are transferred by analogy to this object.

In modeling theory, there are:

1) ideal (mental, symbolic) models, for example, in the form of drawings, notes, signs, mathematical interpretation;

2) material (full-scale, real) models, for example, mock-ups, dummies, analog objects for experiments during examinations, reconstruction external appearance a person according to the method of M.M. Gerasimov.

Economic and mathematical modeling is widely used in various economic studies to describe various kinds of processes, patterns, relationships. Generalized information about research methods is presented in table 1.

Table 1 - Main research methods used in economics

Method type	Method name
1. Methods for eliciting opinions	Interview Questionnaire Selective surveys
2. General logical methods	Analysis Synthesis Induction Deduction Analogy
3. Theoretical methods	Axiomatic method Hypothetical method Formalization Abstraction Generalization Historical method Ascent from the abstract to the concrete
4. Analytical methods	System analysis Scenario writing Network planning Cost functional analysis (FSA) Economic analysis SWOT analysis Statistical methods: correlation analysis, elimination, etc.
5. Methods of assessment	Assessment of the scientific and technical level and competitiveness of development Methods of applied qualimetry (expert, direct counting, parametric, complex, differential) Assessment of the organizational and technical level of production \ Assessment of decision trees Assessment of project payback Assessment of project risks Assessment of project effectiveness (static and dynamic)
6. Methods of directed and systematic search for ideas and solutions	Morphological Analysis Method control questions Search system for non-standard solutions (SPNR) - IdeaFinder Theory of inventive problem solving (TRIZ) Method of organizing concepts
7. Methods of psychological activation of creativity	Brainstorming (assault and its varieties) Synectic method Six thinking hats method Thought map Free association method Focal object method RVS method
8. Decision making methods	Economic and mathematical models Decision tables Comparison of alternatives
9. Forecasting methods	Expert Extrapolations Analogies Delphi method (and its varieties) Regression analysis Simulation models
	Graphic models Physical models Organograms Operograms Job descriptions Presentations

Topic 3. Methods of scientific research.

The concept of the method, methodology and methodology of scientific research. Classification of research methods. General, general scientific and special methods research. Theoretical and empirical research methods.

Scientific research method is a way of knowing objective reality, which is a certainsequence of actions, techniques, operations.

Methodology is a set of research methods and techniques, the procedure for their application and interpretation of the results obtained with their help. It depends on the nature of the object of study, methodology, the purpose of the study, the methods developed, the general level of qualification of the researcher.

Any scientific research is carried out by appropriate techniques and methods, and according to certain rules.

Methodology are called the doctrine of the methods (method) of cognition, that is, the system of principles, rules, methods and techniques intended for the successful solution of cognitive tasks. Each science has its own methodology.

Allocate the levels of methodology:

1) a general methodology, which is universal in relation to all sciences and its content includes philosophical and general scientific methods of cognition;

2) a private research methodology for a group of related economic sciences, which is formed by general, general scientific and private methods of cognition;

3) the methodology of scientific research of a specific science, the content of which includes general, general scientific, private and special methods of cognition.

Depending on the content of the studied objects, methods are distinguishednatural science and methods of social and humanitarian research.

Research methods are classified by branches of science: mathematical, biological, medical, socio - economic, legal, etc.

Depending onfrom the level of knowledge allocatemethods of empirical and theoretical levels.

To methodsempirical level include observation, description, comparison, counting, measurement, questionnaire survey, interview, testing, experiment, modeling.

To methodstheoretical level include axiomatic, hypothetical (hypothetical - deductive), formalization, abstraction, general logical methods (analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, analogy).

Depending on the scope and degree of generality, methods are distinguished:

1) general (philosophical), acting in all sciences and at all stages of knowledge;

2) general scientific, which can be applied in the humanities, natural and technical sciences;

3) special - for a specific science, an area of scientific knowledge.

General and general scientific methods

scientific research

Among the general methods of scientific research, the dialectical and metaphysical are the best known.

Dialectics (Greek - "I am conducting a conversation, I am reasoning").The concept of "dialectics" originated in ancient Greece and originally meant the ability to dispute in the form of questions and answers.

Dialectics – the doctrine of the most general laws of the development of being and cognition, as well as the method of creatively cognizing thinking based on this doctrine.

Dialectics appears in the unity of two sides - subjective and objective.

Subjective dialectics - unfolds in the consciousness of the subject as a reflection of the connections and development of objective existence that exists independently of man and humanity -dialectic objective ... Subjective dialectics is the theory of the development of thinking, cognition, the struggle of ideas in science, philosophy, unfolding in the consciousness of a person.

Objective dialectics - the theory of the development of objective being that exists independently of a person.

Dialectics makes it possible to reflect extremely complex, contradictory processes of the material and spiritual world.

In the doctrine of contradictions, it reveals the driving force and source of all development.

Dialectics is not a simple statement of what is happening in reality, but an instrument of scientific knowledge and transformation of the world. (This is where the unity of dialectics as theory (dialectical materialism) and method (materialist dialectics) is manifested.

Dialectical the concept sees the source of development in the unity and struggle of opposites, considers development as a unity of quantitative and qualitative changes, as a unity of gradualness and leaps, as development in a spiral.

Dialectic principles:

1. The principle of universal interconnection.

2. The principle of development through contradictions.

Basic laws of dialectics:

1. The law of the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones.

2. The law of unity and struggle of opposites.

3. The law of negation of negation.

Metaphysics - method of cognition, opposite to dialectics,

considering phenomena usually outside their interconnection, contradictions and

development.

Characteristics - one-sidedness, abstractness, absolutization of this or that moment in the whole. Objects are considered outside of them complex connection with other processes, phenomena and bodies. This is natural for human thinking, because man is incapable of knowing without dividing the whole into its component parts. Metaphysics is characterized by static thinking.

Metaphysical concept development :

– Considers development as only a decrease or increase (i.e., as soon as quantitative changes) or as soon as qualitative changes without any quantitative changes, i.e.pulls opposites apart .

– Source of development seesonly in external influence on a thing.

– Development is considered or howcircle movement , or just howmovement along upward or downwardstraight etc.

General scientific methods

All general scientific methods should be divided into three groups for analysis:general logical, theoretical and empirical.

General logical methods are analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, analogy.

Analysis - This is the dismemberment, decomposition of the object of research into its component parts. It lies at the heart of the analytical research method. The types of analysis are classification and periodization. The method of analysis is used both in real and in mental activity.

Synthesis - this is a combination of individual sides, parts of the research object into a single whole. However, this is not just their connection, but also the cognition of a new thing - the interaction of parts as a whole. The result of synthesis is a completely new formation, the properties of which are not only the external combination of the properties of the components, but also the result of their internal interconnection and interdependence.

Induction - This is the movement of thought (cognition) from facts, individual cases to a general situation. Inductive inferences "suggest" the idea, the general. With the inductive method of research, in order to obtain general knowledge about any class of objects, it is necessary to investigate individual objects, to find common essential features in them, which will serve as the basis for knowledge about the general feature inherent in this class of objects.

Deduction - this is the derivation of the singular, particular from any general position; movement of thought (cognition) from general statements to statements about individual objects or phenomena. By means of deductive reasoning, they "derive" a certain thought from other thoughts.

Analogy - this is a way of obtaining knowledge about objects and phenomena on the basis of the fact that they have a similarity with others, reasoning in which from the similarity of the studied objects in some features, a conclusion is made about their similarity in other features. The degree of probability (reliability) of inferences by analogy depends on the number of similar features in the compared phenomena. The analogy is most often used in

similarity theory.

To methodstheoretical level rankedaxiomatic, hypothetical, formalization, abstraction, generalization, ascent from the abstract to the concrete, historical, system analysis method.

Axiomatic method - a way of research that

consists in the fact that some statements (axioms, postulates) are accepted without proof and then, according to certain logical rules, the rest of the knowledge is derived from them.

Hypothetical method - a method of research using a scientific hypothesis, that is, an assumption about the cause that causes a given effect, or about the existence of some phenomenon or object.

A variation of this method ishypothetical-deductive a method of research, the essence of which is to create a system of deductively related hypotheses, from which are derived statements of empirical facts.

The structure of the hypothetical-deductive method includes:

1) putting forward guesses (assumptions) about the causes and patterns of the studied phenomena and objects;

2) selection of the most probable, plausible from the set of guesses;

3) derivation from the selected assumption (premise) of the consequence (conclusion) using deduction;

4) experimental verification of the consequences derived from the hypothesis.

The hypothetical method is used in the construction of legal norms. For example, when setting a tax rate of 13 percent on income individuals instead of a progressive scale of taxation, it was assumed that this measure would bring taxation objects out of the shadows and increase budget revenues. According to the tax authorities, this hypothesis has been fully confirmed.

Formalization - display of a phenomenon or object in the symbolic form of any artificial language (for example, logic, mathematics, chemistry) and the study of this phenomenon or object by operations with the corresponding signs. The use of an artificial formalized language in scientific research makes it possible to eliminate such shortcomings of a natural language as ambiguity, inaccuracy, and uncertainty.

Formalization is the basis for algorithmicization and programming, without which the computerization of knowledge and the research process cannot do.

Abstraction - mental distraction from some properties and relationships of the studied subject and the selection of properties and relationships of interest to the researcher. Usually, when abstracting, the secondary properties and connections of the object under study are separated from the essential properties and connections.

Types of abstraction: identification, that is, the allocation of common properties and relations of the studied objects, the establishment of the identical in them, abstraction from the differences between them, the unification of objects into a special class, isolation, that is, the allocation of certain properties and relations that are considered as independent research subjects.

In theory, other types of abstraction are distinguished: potential feasibility, actual infinity.

Generalization - the establishment of general properties and relationships of objects and phenomena, the definition of a general concept in which

reflects the essential, basic features of objects or phenomena of this class. At the same time, generalization can be expressed in the selection of insignificant, but any, signs of an object or phenomenon. This method of scientific research is based on the philosophical categories of the general, the particular and the singular.

Historical method consists in identifying historical facts and, on this basis, in such a mental recreation of the historical process, in which the logic of its movement is revealed. It involves the study of the emergence and development of research objects in chronological order.

Examples of using this method are: studying the development of consumer cooperation over a long period of time in order to detect its tendencies; consideration of the history of the development of consumer cooperation in the pre-revolutionary period and during the NEP (1921-1927).

Ascent from the abstract to the concrete as a method of scientific knowledge lies in the fact that the researcher first finds the main connection of the studied subject (phenomenon), then traces how it is modified in different conditions, opens new connections and in this way reflects in in its entirety is its essence. The use of this method, for example, to study economic phenomena presupposes that the researcher has theoretical knowledge about their general properties and reveals the characteristic features and inherent patterns of development.

System method consists in the study of a system (that is, a certain set of material or ideal objects), connections, its components and their connections with the external environment.

It turns out that these relationships and interactions lead to the emergence of new properties of the system, which are absent in its constituent objects.

When analyzing phenomena and processes in complex systems, a large number of factors (signs) are considered, among which it is important to be able to highlight the main thing and exclude the secondary.

Empirical methods include observation, description, counting, measurement, comparison, experiment, and simulation.

Observation is a method of cognition based on the direct perception of the properties of objects and phenomena with the help of the senses.

Depending on the position of the researcher in relation to the object of study, simple and included observation are distinguished. The first is to observe from the outside, when the researcher is a person who is outside of the object and who is not a participant in the activities of the observed. The second is characterized by the fact that the researcher is openly or incognito included in the group and its activities as a participant.

Description - This is the fixation of the features of the object under study, which are established, for example, by observation or measurement. Description is:

1) direct, when the researcher directly perceives and indicates the attributes of the object;

2) indirect, when the researcher notes the signs of an object that were perceived by other persons (for example, the characteristics of a UFO).

Check - This is the definition of quantitative ratios of research objects or parameters that characterize their properties. The method is widely used in statistics to determine the degree and type of variability of a phenomenon, process, the reliability of the obtained mean values and theoretical conclusions.

Measurement is the determination of the numerical value of a certain quantity by comparing it with a standard. The value of this procedure is that it gives precise, quantitative definite information about the surrounding reality.

Comparison - this is a comparison of the features inherent in two or more objects, the establishment of a difference between them or the finding in them in common, carried out both by the senses and with the help of special devices.

Experiment - this is an artificial reproduction of a phenomenon, a process under given conditions, during which the hypothesis put forward is tested.

Experiments are classified for various reasons:

- by branches of scientific research - physical, biological, chemical, social, etc .;

- by the nature of the interaction of the research tool with the object -ordinary (experimental means directly interact with the object under study) andmodel (the model replaces the object of research). The latter are divided into mental (mental, imaginary) and material (real).

Modeling - the method of scientific knowledge, the essence of which is to replace the studied subject or phenomenon with a special analogous model (object) containing the essential features of the original. Thus, instead of the original (the object of interest to us), the experiment is carried out on a model (another object), and the research results are extended to the original.

Models are physical and mathematical. In accordance with this, a distinction is made between physical and mathematical modeling. If the model and the original are of the same physical nature, then physical modeling is used.

Mathematical model is a mathematical abstraction that characterizes a physical, biological, economic or some other process. Mathematical models for different physical natures are based on the identity of the mathematical description of the processes occurring in them and in the original.

Math modeling - a method for studying complex processes based on a broad physical analogy, when the model and its original are described by identical equations. So, due to the similarity of the mathematical equations of electric and magnetic fields, it is possible to study electrical phenomena using magnetic ones, and vice versa. Salient feature and dignity this method- the ability to apply it to individual parts of a complex system, as well as to quantitatively investigate phenomena that are difficult to study on physical models.

Special and private research methods

Private methods are special methods that operate either only within a particular industry, or outside the industry where they originated. Thus, the methods of physics led to the creation of astrophysics, crystal physics, geophysics, chemical physics and physical chemistry, biophysics. The spread of chemical methods led to the creation of crystal chemistry, geochemistry, biochemistry, and biogeochemistry. A complex of interrelated private methods is often applied to the study of one subject, for example, molecular biology simultaneously uses the methods of physics, mathematics, chemistry, and cybernetics in their interconnection.

Special research methods are used only in one branch of scientific knowledge, or their application is limited to several narrow areas of knowledge.

In the social sciences and humanities, among the special methods are used:

analysis of documents - qualitative and quantitative (content analysis);

polls, interviews, testing;

biographical and autobiographical methods;

sociometry method - the use of mathematical tools to study social phenomena... Most often used in the study of "small groups" and interpersonal relationships in them;

play methods - used in the development of management decisions - imitation (business) games and games open type(especially when analyzing non-standard situations);

expert judgment method is to study the opinions of specialists with deep knowledge and practical experience in a particular area.

Test questions and tasks

1. Give a definition of the terms "method" and "methodology".

2. What is the research methodology.

3. Expand the dialectical and metaphysical concepts of development.

4. List the general scientific methods of scientific research.

5. What methods are considered methods theoretical level?

6. What methods are considered to be the methods of the empirical level?

7. What methods are called private?

8. What methods are called special?

2.1. General scientific methods 5

2.2. Methods of empirical and theoretical knowledge. 7

Bibliography. 12

1. The concept of methodology and method.

1) a set of methods used in any field of activity (science, politics, etc.);

2) the doctrine of the scientific method of cognition.

Methodology (from "method" and "logic") - the doctrine of the structure, logical organization, methods and means of activity.

A method is a set of techniques or operations of practical or theoretical activity. The method can also be characterized as a form of theoretical and practical mastering of reality, proceeding from the patterns of behavior of the object under study.

The methods of scientific knowledge include the so-called universal methods, i.e. general human methods of thinking, general scientific methods and methods of specific sciences. Methods can be classified according to the ratio of empirical knowledge (i.e. knowledge obtained as a result of experience, experimental knowledge) and theoretical knowledge, the essence of which is knowledge of the essence of phenomena, their internal connections. The classification of methods of scientific knowledge is shown in Fig. 1.2.

Each branch applies its own specific scientific, special methods, due to the essence of the object of research. However, often the methods characteristic of any particular science are applied in other sciences. This happens because the objects of study of these sciences are also subject to the laws of this science. For example, physical and chemical methods research is applied in biology on the basis that the objects of biological research include, in one form or another, physical and chemical forms of motion of matter and, therefore, obey physical and chemical laws.

There are two universal methods in the history of cognition: dialectical and metaphysical. These are general philosophical methods.

The dialectical method is a method of cognizing reality in its contradictoriness, integrity and development.

The metaphysical method is the opposite of the dialectical method, which considers phenomena outside of their mutual connection and development.

From the middle of the 19th century, the metaphysical method was increasingly displaced from natural science by the dialectical method.

2. Methods of scientific knowledge

2.1. General scientific methods

The ratio of general scientific methods can also be represented in the form of a diagram (Fig. 2).

Brief description of these methods.

Analysis - mental or real decomposition of an object into its constituent parts.

Synthesis is the unification of the elements learned as a result of analysis into a single whole.

Generalization is a process of mental transition from the singular to the general, from the less general to the more general, for example: the transition from the judgment "this metal conducts electricity" to the judgment "all metals conduct electricity", from the judgment: "the mechanical form of energy turns into heat" to the judgment “every form of energy turns into heat”.

Abstraction (idealization) - mental introduction certain changes into the object under study in accordance with the objectives of the study. As a result of idealization, some properties, features of objects that are not essential for this study can be excluded from consideration. An example of such idealization in mechanics is a material point, i.e. a point with mass, but devoid of any size. The same abstract (ideal) object is an absolutely rigid body.

Induction is the process of deriving a general position from the observation of a number of particular individual facts, i.e. knowledge from the particular to the general. In practice, incomplete induction is most often used, which involves a conclusion about all the objects of a set on the basis of knowledge of only a part of the objects. Incomplete induction based on experimental research and including theoretical justification is called scientific induction. The conclusions of such induction are often probabilistic. This is a risky but creative method. With a strict formulation of the experiment, logical consistency and severity of conclusions, it is capable of giving a reliable conclusion. According to the famous French physicist Louis de Broglie, scientific induction is the true source of truly scientific progress.

Deduction is the process of analytical reasoning from general to particular or less general. It is closely related to generalization. If the initial general provisions are established scientific truth, then by means of deduction the true conclusion will always be obtained. The deductive method is especially important in mathematics. Mathematicians operate with mathematical abstractions and base their reasoning on general principles. These general provisions apply to the solution of particular, specific problems.

Analogy is a probable, plausible conclusion about the similarity of two objects or phenomena in any feature, based on their established similarity in other features. The analogy with the simple allows us to understand the more complex. Thus, by analogy with the artificial selection of the best breeds of domestic animals, Charles Darwin discovered the law of natural selection in the animal and plant world.

Modeling is the reproduction of the properties of the object of knowledge on its specially arranged analogue - the model. Models can be real (material), for example, airplane models, building models, photographs, prostheses, dolls, etc. and ideal (abstract), created by means of language (both natural human language and special languages, for example, the language of mathematics. In this case, we have a mathematical model. Usually it is a system of equations describing the relationships in the system under study.)

The historical method involves reproducing the history of the object under study in all its versatility, taking into account all the details and accidents. The logical method is, in fact, the logical reproduction of the history of the object under study. At the same time, this history is freed from everything that is accidental, inessential, i.e. it's kind of the same historical method but freed from its historical form.

Classification is the distribution of certain objects by classes (departments, categories), depending on their common characteristics, which fixes regular connections between classes of objects in a single system of a specific branch of knowledge. The formation of each science is associated with the creation of classifications of the studied objects, phenomena.

2. 2 Methods of empirical and theoretical knowledge.

The methods of empirical and theoretical knowledge are schematically shown in Fig. 3.

Observation.

Observation is a sensory reflection of objects and phenomena of the external world. This is the initial method of empirical knowledge that allows you to get some primary information about the objects of the surrounding reality.

Scientific observation is characterized by a number of features:

Purposefulness (observation should be carried out to solve the set research problem);

· Regularity (observation should be carried out strictly according to the plan drawn up on the basis of the research task);

· Activity (the researcher must actively seek, highlight the moments he needs in the observed phenomenon).

Scientific observations are always accompanied by a description of the object of knowledge. The latter is necessary for fixing technical properties, sides of the object under study, which constitute the subject of research. Descriptions of observation results form the empirical basis of science, based on which researchers create empirical generalizations, compare the objects under study by various parameters, classify them according to some properties, characteristics, find out the sequence of stages of their formation and development.

According to the method of observation, they can be direct and mediated.

With direct observation, certain properties, sides of the object are reflected, perceived by the human sense organs. Currently, direct visual observation is widely used in space research as an important method of scientific knowledge. Visual observations from a manned space station are the simplest and most effective method studies of the parameters of the atmosphere, land surface and ocean from space in the visible range. From the orbit of an artificial satellite of the Earth, the human eye can confidently determine the boundaries of the cloud cover, the types of clouds, the boundaries of the outflow of turbid river waters into the sea, etc.

However, most often the observation is mediated, that is, it is carried out using certain technical means. If, for example, until the beginning of the 17th century, astronomers observed celestial bodies with the naked eye, the invention of the optical telescope by Galileo in 1608 raised astronomical observations to a new, much higher level.

Observations can often play an important heuristic role in scientific cognition. In the process of observations, completely new phenomena can be discovered that make it possible to substantiate a particular scientific hypothesis. From all of the above, it follows that observations are a very important method of empirical cognition, providing the collection of extensive information about the world around us.

The main purpose of research methodology is. Research methods and methodology

CONCEPTS OF THE METHOD

AND METHODOLOGY OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

Philosophical and general scientific methods of scientific research.

Private and special methods of scientific research.

Theoretical and empirical methods of scientific research.