The position of warriors in ancient greece. Army and military affairs in ancient greece. Self-study assignment

Tsybulsky S. Military business among the ancient Greeks. Part I. Armament and composition of the Greek army. Warsaw, Author's Edition, 1889.
Unfortunately, we do not have wall tables, which are discussed in the book, therefore, as illustrations, only illustrations with the tables attached to the book are given.
(paged numbering of notes in electronic publication has been changed to end-to-end)

FOREWORD
TO THE WHOLE EDITION.

In our pedagogical literature, there is a need for such a manual that would make it easier for pupils of gymnasiums to understand the ancient classical world and contribute to meaningful reading of the authors. After all, there is no doubt that the works of these latter should not only teach us the language of the ancient Hellenes and Romans, but should also familiarize us with the everyday life and cultural life of ancient peoples.

Although there are special works like Lubker's "Real Dictionary" and Velishsky's "Life of the Greeks and Romans", these manuals are too extensive and expensive, as a result of which they cannot become the handbooks of school students. In any case, if a textbook of antiquities is illustrated with all the necessary drawings, then, no matter how low its price, it is still not accessible to every student. On the other hand, if the book contains only one text without illustrations, then there is a different kind of inconvenience. Namely, whenever a teacher wants to give his students a clearer and more accurate understanding of any subject with. II from Greek or Roman antiquities, especially when he has to acquaint the class with this or that real monument, he is forced to either draw on the blackboard, or show the pupils images of this object in atlases, albums and special essays. In the first case, a lot of time is wasted, and not everyone knows how to draw. In the second, there is an inconvenience of this kind that only a few people can see at one time, and not the whole class, and the students get acquainted with the image of the object fleetingly, without having time to capture the idea of ​​it in their memory.

As a result, there is an urgent need to hang drawings of a rather large format on the walls of the classroom, which would serve as a visual aid in the study of Greek and Roman antiquities. Unfortunately, we do not have such benefits. There are, however, in German literature Liaunitz's wall tables, but they do not embrace all the classical antiquities necessary for reading the authors, moreover, their price is not affordable not only for students, but sometimes for many educational institutions; finally, some of the tables mentioned are already outdated, and their content does not correspond to new scientific research in the field of archeology, history and antiquities in general. There are also Langl's wall paintings (oleographies), but these latter embrace only architecture.

Aware of the need for the aforementioned manual in our educational literature, I undertook the publication with. III wall "tables for the visual teaching and study of Greek and Roman antiquities." Their purpose is twofold:

1) to give students a clear and accurate concept of this or that subject, as it appears in the descriptions of the classical authors they read and on the real monuments bequeathed by antiquity in the works of painting, sculpture, architecture, etc. -

and 2) to imprint in the memory of students the exact name (in one of the ancient languages) of a given subject with the names of all its constituent parts.

I attach to the tables the corresponding text, compiled on the basis of the works of ancient writers read in gymnasiums, and with the goal of bringing into one whole everything that the student knows about a given subject from one or another classics. Thus, wall tables and explanatory text to them should mutually complement each other. Sometimes drawings are attached to the text, which either supplement the content of the wall tables (in a few cases, however), or represent this ancient monument in the form in which it exists today, if it is presented on the wall table in a restored form.

The edition of my spreadsheets will consist of 3 episodes.

So far I have started publishing the first series.

The contents of the tables pertaining here are as follows:

I. Defensive and offensive weapons among the ancient Greeks.

II. Greek warriors.

* Geschichte des griechischen Kriegswesens von der ältesten Zeit bis auf Pyrrhos. Nach den Quellen bearbeitet von V. Rüstow und Dr. H. Köchly. Aarau. 1852.

* Die Kriegswaffen in ihrer historischen Entwickelung von den ältesten Zeiten bis auf die Gegenwart, von August Demmin. 2 Auflage Lpz. 1886.

* M. Jähns. Handbuch einer Geschichte des Kriegswesens von der Urzeit bis zur Renaissance. Lpz. 1880.

H. Stein. Das Kriegswesen der Spartaner. Konitz 1863.

H. Stehfen. De Spartanorum re militari Greifsw. 1881.

Heinrichs. Der Kriegsdienst bei den Athenern. Berl. 1864.

Domeier. De re militari Atheniensium capita tria. Detm. 1865.

Lejeune Dirichlet. De equitibus atticis. Königsb. 1882.

p. 9 A. Martin. Les cavaliers Atheniens. Par. 1886.

* Denkmäler des klassischen Altertums z. Erklärung des Lebens der Griechen und Römer in Religion, Kunst und Sitte; lexikalisch bearbeitet von A. Baumeister. 3 Bänd. München-Leipzig 1885-1888. Division - Waffen and friend.

* Handbuch des klassischen Altertums - Wissenschaft in system. Darstellung herausgegeben von Iw. Müller. Nördling. (released since 1886). Die griechischen Kriegsaltertümer v. Dr. A. Bauer. IV B. 1 H ..

* Kulturhistorischer Bilderatlas. I. Altertum, bearb. von Pr. Dr. Th. Schreiber, mit einem Textbuche von Pr. Dr. K. Bernhardi Lpz. 1888.

* Das Kriegswesen der Alten von Dr. M. Fiekelscherer mit Illustrationen. Lpz. 1888. (compiled from the previous manual).

* Dictionnaire des antiquites grecques et romaines d'après les textes et les monuments, ouvr. red. p. une societé d'écr. spec, d'archeol. et d. profes. s. la direction de M. M. Ch. Daremberg et Ed. Saglio av. l. conc. de M. Ed. Pottier. Paris; has been published since 1873; the last one is 13th issue (up to Dan.).

* Dictionnaire des antiquités romaines et greeques, ac. de 2000 gravures d'après l'antique p. Antony Rich., Trad. de l'anglais, 3-me edit. 1883.

* A real dictionary of classical antiquities according to Lubker. Publication of the classic society. philology and pedagogy. S.-Pb. 1883. (there is also a publication by Wolf, trans. Edited by Modestov). Dept. Arma, Exercitus and others.

* Life of the Greeks and Romans. Composition F. F. Velishsky... Translated. from Czech ed. I. Ya. Rostovtseva... Prague 1878. VIII. Military affairs.

p.10 * A short sketch of Greek antiquities, compiled K. F. Strashkevich... Ed. II-nd. Kiev 1874. Chapters: I, 4; II, 6; III, 7.

Semberg. A guide to the study of Greek antiquities; op. Boyensen. Translated. from German. Vilno 1874.

* V.V. Latyshev. Sketch of Greek Antiquities. Allowance for high school students. cl. and for novice philologists. Two parts. Ed. II-nd S.-Pb. 1888-1889. Volume I. Chapters: II, 2; XII and XXIV.

* Russian antiquities in the monuments of art, published by gr. I. Tolstoy and N. Kondakov... Issue 1st. Classic antiquity of southern Russia. With drawing. in the text. S.-Pb. 1889.

* H. Schliemann. Bericht über die Ausgrabungen in Troja. Mit Atlas Lpz. 1874.

- * Mykenä. Lpz. 1876.

Bericht über meine Forschungen und Entdeckungen in Mykenä und Tiryns Lpz. 1878.

- * Troja. Ergebnisse meiner neusten Ausgrabungen. Lpz. 1884 and others.

Olenine. Essai sur le costume et les armes des gladiateurs compar. à celles du soldat grec ou romain. 1835.

* Bilderatlas zur Weltgeschichte nach Kunstwerken alter und neuer Zeit. Gezeichnet und herausgegeben von Pr. Lud. Weisser. Mit erläuterndem Text von Dr. Heinr. Merz. Stuttgart. 1884.

Antiquities of the Bosphorus Cimmerian, kept in the Imperial Museum of the Hermitage S.-Pb. 1854 (published in 200 copies).

p. 11 * A. Rassinet. Le costume historique, 500 pl., 300 en coul., Or et argent, 200 en camoïer avec d. notices explicatives et une étude historique. Par. 1887.

* Trachten. Haus-, Feld- und Kriegsgeräthschaften der Völker alter und neuer Zeit von Fried. Hottenroth; out. since 1884

Among other things, articles published in special journals published in Athens acquaint us with the latest research concerning the department of Greek antiquities we are considering:

* Ecole française d'Athènes. Bulletin de correspond. hellenique. Δελ­τίον Ἑλ­λη­νικῆς ἀλ­λη­λογ­ρα­φίας ... Ἀθήνησιν (exited since 1877).

* Mittheilungen des kaiserl. deutschen archeologischen Instituts... Athenische Abtheilung. Athen (since 1876).

* Πρακ­τι­κὰ τῆς ἐν Ἀθή­ναις Ἀρχεολο­γικῆς Ἑται­ρίας , (since 1871).

Ἐφη­μηρὶς ἀρχεολο­γική, ἐκδ. ὑπ. τ. ἐν Ἀθή­ναις Ἀρχεολο­γικῆς Ἑται­ρίας .

For a detailed indication of literature and sources, see the IVth volume (1 half) of the work published by Ivan Muller, pp. 231, 240, 265, 794, 300, 306, 312, 318, 329.

Page 13

WEAPON.

Weapons of the pre-Homeric period.

With weapons of the pre-Homeric period, we are familiarized mainly with the Mycenaean excavations of Schliemann. On the attached table below we see an image of a gold, beautifully engraved blade. It depicts the hunt of five armed men for three lions.

Rice. 1

Rice. 2

Rice. 3

Rice. 4

Rice. 5

Two lions have fled, the third rushes at opponents, of which one is already on the ground, three are directing their spears against the lion, and the fourth is drawing a bow. On the mentioned blade we find the following parts of the Greek weaponry: spear, bow and shields; the belly and thighs are covered with rather original clothing. As we can see, there are two kinds of shields: one is oval, covering the whole warrior from head to toe, the other is quadrangular, slightly smaller than the first, similar to the Roman scutum. These shields must have been very heavy if they were still supported by straps suspended over the shoulder. The shields, perhaps, were made of wood, covered with a metal plaque from page 14 on one side, and covered with skin on the other.

The idea of ​​the spears belonging to the era under consideration, we get, in addition to the indicated source, on the basis of the bronze original of the point found in Mycenae, see the attached table.

Swords belonging to the pre-Homeric era are presented in two forms: some, the length of which is not less than 80 centimeters, served to stab with them, and for strikes, others, shaped like knives, were assigned exclusively for the latter purpose; see attached table NN. and . We placed the handle of the sword found at Mycenae on the I-th wall plate, see ξυήλη.

The arrows must have had bone points, of which 15 were found in one tomb at Mycenae; two of them are presented in the attached table.

It may also be inferred that the Mycenaeans were familiar with the use of war chariots, as shown by the tombstones.

Weapon of the heroic period.

We get the concept of the weaponry of Homeric heroes from a comparison of the descriptions held by the Greek singer with a few real monuments of the modern era or those close to the poet.

The Homeric era introduces the following weapons: defensive- helmet, carapace, leggings, belt and shield and offensive- sword, bow, ax and sling.

Let's consider each of the mentioned weapons separately.

page 15 For helmet Homer has the following names:

κυνέη (feminine from κύνεος, meaning δορά), in fact, is the name of a hat made of dog skin; then the word began to denote any helmet, both leather and metal, but without a forehead and a sultan; so in Iliad X, 258 the helmet is called ἄφαλος and ἄλλοφος, (in the same place it is called καταῖτυξ). Κυνέη is used by Homer with the following definitions: ταυρείη (Iliad. X, 258), κτιδέη - fox (Iliad. X, 335, 458), χαλκήρης (Iliad. III, 316), χαλκοπάρῃος (Iliad. X, XII Odys. XVIII, 378), χρυσείη (Iliad. V, 743), τετράφαλος (Iliad. XII, 385). Hades' hat of invisibility is also called κυνέη (Iliad. V, 845).

A helmet called καταῖτυξ (κατά-τεύχω) worn by Diomedes (Iliad. X, 258) is closely related to κυνέη in its appearance and purpose. We give an image of a similar helmet on our 1st table, after the bronze statue of Diomedes. Leather helmets, as less conspicuous than metal ones, were used during night expeditions, as seen from the Iliad. X, 257 and Odys. XXIV, 231.

Homer's helmet is also called στεφάνη (Iliad. VII, 12; X, 30; XI, 96; στε­φάνη χαλ­κο­βάρεια ) and πήληξ (the same; root as in πάλλω) (Odys. I, 256; Iliad. XV, 608, VIII, 308).

The most common name for the helmet is κόρυς; it is metallic, copper, as a result of which it is called: χαλκείη (Iliad. XII, 184), χαλκοπάρῃος (with copper cheeks), χαλκήρης (χαλκός and ἀραρίσκω) (Iliad. XIII, 714). Sometimes for the fortress several metal sheets were placed one on top of the other, as a result of which the helmet is called τρίπτυχος - triple (πτυχή - πτύξ - layer) (Iliad. XI, 352).

Parts of the Homeric helmet are as follows: κράνος - crown (Homer does not use it; there is only the word κρανίον, Iliad. VIII, p.16 84 - skull, head), φάλος - forehead, φάλαρα - overhangs (Iliad. XVI, 106), ὀχεύς - chin strap (Iliad. III, 372), κύμβαχος - bow (Iliad. XV, 536) and λόφος - sultan. The latter was most often made from horse hair (Iliad. XV, 537: ἵππειος; VI, 469: ἱππιοχαίτης), which were usually dyed red (Iliad. XV, 538). The helmet, according to the material from which the sultan was made, is called: ἱπποδασείη - thick-haired (Iliad. III, 369; IV, 459, VI, 9 and often), ἵππουρις - decorated with a ponytail (Iliad. VI, 495), ἱππόκομος - horse-haired Xvi, 338).

The helmet thus covered the entire face, protecting the forehead, temples and cheeks (Iliad. XIII, 576, 805; XV, 608). In the front part of the helmet, which covered the face, holes were made for the eyes, as a result of which it is called αὐλῶπiς (Iliad. V, 182; XI, 353). (Hes. αὐλῶ­πος· εἶδος πε­ρικε­φαλαίας πα­ραμή­κεις ἐχούσης τὰς τῶν ὀφθαλ­μῶν ὀπάς ... Etym. Mag. 170, 4; κοιλόφθαλμον). An example of a closed Homeric helmet is the helmet on the I-th table - κό­ρυς κο­ρίν­θια - on the left side, on the bust of Pallas Athena, found within Tusculum (in Latium) in the estate of a wealthy Roman; it is made of Pentelikon marble, hence comes from Athens; located in the Munich Glyptotek. We often find similar images of a helmet on coins.

Often the front of the helmet was left open, as can be seen from the Iliad. V, 290; XIII, 615, etc., and as the images on vases of the most ancient style show; see on the 1st table. Κό­ρυς κο­ρίν­θια on the right side, after painting on a vase kept in the Louvre.

There are many difficulties in interpreting what Homer means φάλος. The most correct one should be considered the opinion that φάλος does not designate for him the parts of the helmet covering the forehead or cheeks, but designates the bow, p. 17 attached to the helmet in the direction from back to front and serves to strengthen it against the blows of the sword. Sometimes there were several such arcs on the helmet, as a result of which it is called ἀμφίφαλος, that is, with two arches (Iliad. V, 743; XI, 41); cm. Κό­ρυς ἀμφί­φαλος on the I-th table, depicting a bronze helmet from the inner vicinity of Samnium (now kept in the Museum of Naples), - τετράφαλος, that is, with four φάλος 's (Iliad. XXII, 314; XII, 384). The sultan - λόφος, explained the scholiast to Iliad directly to φάλος ’. XIII, 132: φά­λοι μὲν τὰ προ­με­τωπί­δια ἐπα­νασ­τή­ματα, ὦν καὶ ὁ λό­φος ἔχε­ται ... Images on ancient vases are in full agreement with this interpretation; Wed Κόρυς ἀττική on the 1st table and the hoplite helmet on the 2nd.

As for the name φάλαρα, then, on the basis of new research, it can be assumed that it was a kind of bulges - bumps on the helmet, as our drawing on the I-th table shows. There could be two such protuberances on each of the two sides of the helmet; so the latter is called τετ­ρα­φάλη­ρος (Iliad. V, 743, XI, 41). It should be noted that nowhere does Homer mention that φάλος and φάλαρα were mobile.

In conclusion, let us add a description of the helmet from the Iliad in the Russian translation of Gnedich: Iliad. XXII, 314 et seq .:

or Iliad. XVIII, 619 et seq .;

p. 18 or Iliad. XIX, 380 et seq.

The helmet weighed about 6 pounds.

The carapace - Θώρηξ - consisted of two convex metal parts - γύαλα - for the chest and for the shoulders, which were connected by means of shoulder pads - ὦμοι, which were attached with belts to the rings on the front plate. The Γύαλα (Iliad. V, 99, XV, 530) were also linked under the shoulders, and at the bottom they were girded with a belt ζωστήρ (ζώνη) (Iliad. V, 539, 615). Mentioned in Iliad. IV, 132; XX.414

Ζωστήρ was worn over the shell, as a result of which the expression δίπ­λοος ἤντε­το θώ­ρηξ (Iliad. XX, 415; cf. Iliad. IV, 133). Under the carapace, girded with the aforementioned belt, there was another wide belt - μίτρη, as can be seen from Iliad. IV, 134 et seq .:

Wed Iliad. IV, 187; V, 187.

p.19 Sometimes the Greeks wore a belt on a tunic without a shell. A similar belt is probably referred to in the Iliad. X, 77, where he is called ζωστήρ, and in Odys. XIV, 482, where he is called ζώνη. These belts were usually carefully finished and decorated with carvings. We give an image of a similar belt on the I-th table, see Ζωστήρ, found in the so-called. “Tombe a pozzo” in Corneto in Italy.

Homeric's carapace was short and barely reached the thighs; so, in Iliad. XIII, 371 we read that the spear hits the stomach, therefore, the latter was not covered with a shell. The carapace was usually adapted to the body of the wearer, so that the carapace of one hero did not always fall on the other (Iliad. III, 333). Our drawing represents an ancient carapace from a bronze statuette found at Dodona; see table. I-th Θώρηξ στάδιος. The armor of kings and heroes was made very skillfully, as a result of which they are called: πο­λυ­δαίδα­λοι very skillful (Iliad. III, 358), ποικίλοι motley (generally about weapons), ἀστερόεις shining (Iliad. XVI, 134), παναίολοι (πᾶς-αἰόλος) shining (Iliad. XI, 374).

From under the carapace fell a zapon - ζῶμα (Iliad. IV, 187) made of leather or felt; metal plates were attached to it - πτέρυγες, superimposed one on top of the other, as shown in the I-th table in the figure ( Θώ­ρηξ λε­πιδω­τός ) from a later era (painting on a bowl from Caere, a city in Etruria), to which πτέρυγες belong.

Pausanias in the X book. 26, 5 of his composition - Πε­ριήγη­σις τῆς Ἑλ­λά­δος - describes a very ancient carapace depicted by Polygnotus and seen by him in the Delphic temple as follows:

“It consists of two metal parts, one of which covers the chest and abdomen, and the other p.20 the back: they were called γύαλα (bulges), one was worn in the front and the other at the back, and then fastened with clasps (περόναι). Such a shell, even without a shield, seems to have sufficiently protected the body ”(Velishsky p. 533).

Instead of the word θώρηξ, Homer also uses χιτών, which was also made of copper (Iliad. XIII, 439).

Homer also mentions a linen shell - Λινοθώρηξ - dressed in a linen shell; (Iliad. II, 529, 830).

Homer does not know chain mail; expression - στρεπ­τὸς χι­τών - (Iliad. V, 113) does not mean chain mail, but the adjective - στρεπτός - braided, twisted - indicates a known kind of fabric.

Homer describes the shell of Agamemnon - Iliad as follows. XI, 24 et seq.

The carapace weighed 22-23 pounds.

-Leggings- κνημῖδες - they covered the leg from foot to knee and were fastened with buckles - ἐπισφύρια, which in Homer in most cases are silver (Iliad. III, 331; XI, 18). Leggings were usually made of copper (VII, 41: χαλ­κοκνή­μιδες ᾿Αχαιοί and often) and inside, like the shell, were padded with felt. The Iliad. XVIII, 613 and XXI, 592 we read about tin shells, (ὁ κασσίτερος - tin). The Odys. XXIV, 228 speaks of cowhide leggings ( κνη­μῖδες βοεῖαι ); probably, the leggings mentioned are similar to those that we see on the I-th table on the legs of an ancient warrior (from a painting on a very ancient Mycenaean vase).

p.21 In Odys. XXIV, 230 also mentions gloves (χειρίς). Both gloves and leather leggings were put on by Laertes, Odysseus's father, protecting the body from thorns while working in the garden. Bronze and gilded leggings (found near Kerch) presented on our I-th table can serve as an illustration of the leggings of the Homer era.

The pair of leggings weighed about 7 pounds.

Shields- ἀσπίς, σάκος - there were two kinds: a large oval shield that covered the whole warrior, and a small round shield.

The first consisted of several layers of cowhide (as a result of which the shield is called βοείη (V, 452), covered with a metal sheet, which was usually richly decorated with carvings and paintings. Ajax's shield consisted of seven skins - σά­κος ἑπτα­βόειον (Iliad. VII, 222), Teukra's shield of four - σά­κος τετ­ρα­θέλυμ­νον (Iliad. XV, 479). Achilles' shield (Iliad. XVIII, 481 and XX, 270 et seq.) Consisted of five layers of metals: two bronze, two pewter and one gold. Such a shield would be extremely heavy and inconvenient to use, therefore it can be considered a work of the poet's imagination. The outer side of the shield was convex, and in the middle of it was the navel - ὀμφαλός; hence the epithet of the shield is ὀμφαλόεσσα (Iliad. IV, 448; VI, 118).

The circumference of the shield was fastened with a leather or metal rim - ἄντυξ (Iliad. XIV, 412; XV, 465). The part of the rim that was closer to the shoulder was called πρώτη (Iliad. XX, 275). The inner side of the shield was supplied with two brackets - κανόνες, into which the left hand was threaded (Iliad. VIII, 193; XIII, 407). In addition, a belt was attached to the shield - τελαμών (Iliad. XVI, 803), on which it was worn. Such a belt was often covered p.22 with silver (Iliad. XI, 38; XVIII, 480). Cutouts were made on both elongated sides of the shield, probably so that through them at times it was possible to observe the enemy. A similar shield is depicted on our I-th table - Ἀσπίς - σάκος, after painting on a vase. Such shields are found very often on the monuments of ancient Greek art. The shield we have considered is called ποδηνεκής (Iliad. XV, 646) and ἀμφιβρότης (Iliad. II, 389; XI, 32; XX, 281).

The second kind of shield, i.e. round, is called by Homer ἀσπίς εὔκυκ­λος (Iliad. V, 797; XIII, 715), or πάντοσ᾿ ἐΐση (Iliad. V, 300). Such a shield could be as little as 3 to 4 feet in diameter, as shown by ancient monuments. An example of such a shield is the shield of a warrior on a chariot in the attached table (see below ἅρμα). Homer also mentions small light shields - λαι­σήϊα πτε­ρόεν­τα (Iliad. V, 453; XII, 426).

On the shields of Homeric heroes there were various images; for example, according to the testimony of ancient Greek monuments, Idomeneo had a rooster, Menelaus had a serpent, and Tydeus had a boar. The most common image of Medusa (see the I-th table - πέλ. Ἀργολική).

The Iliad (XI, 32 et seq.) Describes the shield of Agamemnon as follows:

The shield of Sarpedon is drawn by Homer (Iliad. XII, 294) in the following words:

The shield of Achilles, which we mentioned above, is described by Homer in an extremely artistic way in Iliad. XVIII, 478-608, cf. Iliad. XX, 270 et seq.

Hesiod is credited with describing the shield of Hercules - Ἀσπὶς Ἡρακ­λέους modeled on Homer's Achilles shield. (see translation of Hesiod Georg. Vlastov. S.-Pb. 1885).

The large oval shield weighed about 37 pounds, the round one about 20 pounds.

Sword- ξίφος, φάσγανον, ἄορ - was usually bronze; in Iliad. XVIII, 34 the iron sword is mentioned; but the place mentioned belongs to a later era. Such a sword could be stabbed like a sword (Iliad. IV, 531, XIII, 147; XIV, 26; XV, 278); or chop like a saber (Iliad. V, 80, 146, 584; X, 455, 484, 489; XI, 109, 146, etc.); it was, moreover, a barreled one (ἄμφηκες Iliad. X, 256), pointed on both sides - ἀμφο­τέρω­θεν ἀκαχ­μέ­νον - (Odys. XXII, 80) and rather long - μέγα ξίφος (Iliad. I, 194, XV, 712, etc.). The handle of the sword - κώπη (Iliad. I, 219; Odys. VIII, 403) was often decorated with gold or silver nails (Iliad. XI, 29); as a result, the sword is called ἀργυρόηλον - decorated with silver nails (Odys. VIII, 406, etc.). p.24 The sword was hung on a belt τελαμών (Iliad. VII, 304; XXIII, 825) most often at the left side, as can be judged from the images on ancient monuments.

The sword was placed in a sheath - κολεός - leather or metal.

The image of the sword - ἐγχειρίδιον (found in the province of Parma), placed on the I-th table, can serve to a certain extent as an illustration of the Homeric sword. The notches between the projections on the handle were probably set in wood or wrapped around with a rope impregnated with some kind of resinous composition; in Iliad. XV, 713 the sword is called μελάνδετον (μέλας-δέω). The example of the Homeric sword is mainly the bronze sword on the I-th table - ξί­φος-φάσ­γα­νον-ἄορ housed in the museum of artillery in Paris, 78 cm long.

The Iliad. XIII, 576 the Thracian sword θρηΐκιον is mentioned.

The knife hanging at the belt - μάχαιρα was not actually a military weapon, but served for cutting and was used in sacrifices (Iliad. III, 271), as well as in various unforeseen cases (Iliad. XI, 844); Wed on the attached table N. 3rd (Mycenaean knife).

The sword of Agamemnon is described by Homer (Iliad. XI, 29 et seq.) In the following words:

A Homeric sword could weigh about 5 pounds.

A spear- δόρυ, ἔγχος, ἐγχείη, ξυστόν, αἰχμή, ἄκων - consisted of the following parts:

p.25 1. Edge - αἰχμή (Iliad. IV, 461; VI, 320), ἀκωκή; it was copper (ibid.). The tip was imposed with a tubular end - αὐλός on the shaft and attached to it with a ring - πόρκης (VI, 320).

2. The shaft is δόρυ (Iliad. XVI, 814), ξυστόν (Iliad. IV, 469; XI, 260), hence the spear itself bears the same names. The shaft was usually ash - μείλινον (V, 655 and often), as a result of which the spear is called μελίη (Iliad. II, 543 and often).

3. A metal tip σαυρωτήρ (X, 153), οὐρίαχος (Iliad. XIII, 443) was attached to the other end of the shaft, which was also sharp and could be stuck into the ground (Iliad. X, 153). Spear epithets: ἀμφίγυον (Odys. XVI, 474; Iliad. XIII, 144) (ἀμφὶ - γυῖον, member), ἐνδεκάπηχυ - 11 cubits (πῆχυς = approximately 10 vershoks) (Iliad. VI, 319; VIII, 494); πελώριον - huge (Iliad. V, 594), δολιχόσκιον - long-haired (Iliad. III, 346) and χάλκεον (very often) copper.

Homer's heroes are usually armed with two spears in case one breaks or is unsuccessfully thrown (Iliad. III, 18; XII, 298). This is how heroes appear on the monuments of ancient painting; their spears are usually not of the same size. See Ψιλός - lightly armed on the I-th table, depicted from a painting on a vase representing a scene of farewell. One hero says goodbye to his wife and child, the other, ready for battle, with two spears in hand, is waiting for him.

The parts of the spear are indicated on our I-th table.

Homer says this about Hector's spear (Iliad. VIII, 493 et ​​seq.):

p. 26 or elsewhere (Iliad. X, 152 et seq.):

The Homeric spear could weigh about 5 pounds.

Onion- τόξον. Its parts were as follows: handle - πῆχυς (Iliad. XI, 375), horns - κέρατα upholstered with metal at the ends; such an end was called κορώνη (Iliad. IV, 111), the bowstring - νευρή (Iliad. IV, 118). Κέρατα were prepared from the horns of a ibex (Iliad. IV, 109; Odys. XXI, 395). Since the bow was pulled against the direction of the arc, it is called τυαλίν­το­νον τό­ξον (Iliad. VIII, 266; Odys. XXIII, 11) - πάλιν-τείνω.

The bow was kept in a case called γωρυτός (Odys. XXI, 54).

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Arrow- ὀϊστός, ἰός, βέλος. The parts of the arrow were as follows: a point with notches - ὄγκοι (Iliad. IV, 151), a shaft - δόναξ (XI, 584), a notch that was imposed on the bowstring - γλυφίς (IV, 122) and a tie to strengthen the point attached to the shaft - νεῦρον (IV, 151). The point was metal, as a result of which the arrow is called ἰός χαλ­κο­βαρής (Iliad. XV, 465). The point sometimes had three notches, as a result of which the arrow is called ὀϊστὸς τριγ­λώ­χιν (V, 393); see the attached table. - an arrowhead found in Megalopolis. There is no news of arrow poisoning in the Iliad, but Odys. I, 260 et seq. we read that Odysseus undertook a journey in order to get poison, "in order to give it to his arrows, tipped with copper." The arrows were kept in a quiver - φαρέτρη (Iliad. I, 45 and often) - (φέρω), which was covered with a lid πώμα (Iliad. IV, 116). The quiver is called ἀμφηρεφής; ἐρέφω - I cover (Iliad. I, 45). Sometimes the bow was put p.27 in one quiver with arrows, as shown in the I-th table (according to the gem located in the Berlin Museum).

Although the art of archery was not alien to gods and heroes, however, in battle, the matter was decided with a spear and a sword, and the name of an archer was considered abusive; e.g. in Iliad. IV, 242 Agamemnon in the following words condemns the men "to the sad battle of those who slay":

or in Iliad. XI, 385 et seq. Diomedes scolds Paris:

Here is a description of the bow from Homer (Iliad. IV, 105- 126):

He bared a glossy bow, the horns of a swift-leaping chamois, Wild, which he himself once noticed under Percy, Ready to hide from a stone: waiting for her in ambush, He hit in the chest with an arrow and knocked over a stone with a ridge. Her horns rose by sixteen palms from the head. Having crafted them skillfully, the famous rogolet rallied, I brightened the whole bow brightly and covered its surface with gold. This shiny bow, stretching the archer, skillfully worked it out, Bowing to the bottom; and his squad surrounded with shields, In fear, but the servants of Ares, the Achaeans will not hit him, Before Menelaus, Governor of Achaean, is impaled. Pandarus raised the quivering roof and drew an arrow, A new, winged arrow, source of black suffering. Soon he adapted a bitter arrow to a tight bowstring, p.28 And making a vow to the bow-bearer of Lycia, Phoebus, To offer him the first-born lambs a famous sacrifice, Returning to your father's house, to the sacred walls of Potions: At the same time it brought on both feathery ears and an ox-vein; He drew the vein to the nipple, and to the onion with a feathery iron; And he bent his huge bow, barely round, The horn creaked, the bowstring hummed, and the arrow spun Pointed, greedy to fly into the host of resistance.

A bow could weigh about 4 pounds, an arrow more or less ¾ pound.

Poleax- ἀξίνη, as a weapon, is rarely found in Homer; it was copper - εὔχαλκος (Iliad. XIII, 612), planted on an olive ax - πέλεκκον (Iliad. XIII, 612); Homer's Pisander Trojan is armed with an ax. The ax is mentioned when attacking ships (Iliad. XV, 711); in the same place the word πέλεκυς is used - an ax. Homer in Iliad. XIII, 610 et seq. says so about the ax:

The Iliad. VII, 141 mention of the iron mace σι­δηρείη κο­ρύνη .

Sling- σφενδόνη - in Homer they used only locra (Iliad. XIII, 716 cf. Iliad. XIII, 721), as well as Trojans, as can be judged by Iliad. XIII, 600:

page 29 War chariot- Ἅρμα. Homer's heroes go to battle on two-wheeled chariots - ἅρμα, ὄχεα; δίφρος, harnessed most often by a pair of horses. The parts of the chariot were as follows: wheels - τροχοί (Iliad. VI, 42); they were superimposed on the axis - ἄξων (Iliad. V, 838), about 7 feet in length. The wooden wheel rim - ἴτυς (root Fι - vit; Iliad. V, 724) was covered with a metal tire - ἐπίσσωτρον (ἐπί-σῶτρον - rim) (Iliad. V, 725; XI, 537; XX, 394, 502; XXIII, 505) ... The wheel had 8 spokes - κνήμη (Iliad. V, 723: ὀκτάκνημα), mounted on the hub - πλήμνη (Iliad. V, 726; XXIII, 339). However, most of the monuments of ancient painting on vases represent us in wheels of four spokes. All parts of the wheel were covered with metal. The axle was overlaid with a δίφρος body, open at the back (Iliad. VI, 42; V, 160; XXIII, 132); sometimes, however, the word δίφρος is used instead of ἅρμα. The body consisted of a plank bottom and railings - ἐπιδιφριάς (Iliad. X, 475). The railing, however, usually consisted of a row of posts intertwined with flexible rods, whence the epithet of the chariot comes from - εὔπλεκτος (Iliad. XXIII, 335); they were connected at the top by a curved rim - ἄντυξ (Iliad. V, 262 and often). Belts coming from the drawbar were tied to this rim.

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However, Homer also mentions two ἄντυγες (Iliad. V, 728; XX, 500). Probably one of them served for the cart (ἡνία), or, perhaps, two ἄντυγες corresponded to two riders. A drawbar - ῥυμός (Iliad. V, 729; X, 505) came out from under the body of the axle, on which a yoke was superimposed. Details regarding harnessing horses are shown in the attached table.

A pair of horses was harnessed to the chariot, which was sometimes joined by a third - the rider - παρήορος (Iliad. XVI, 471, 474); the latter, however, did not wait, but p.30 served as a spare. The Iliad. VIII, 185 mentions four horses at Hector.

There were always two people on the chariot, one who drove the horses - the driver - ἡνίοχος (Iliad. XXIII, 132, etc.), the other - a fighter - παραιβάτης (Iliad. XXIII, 132), who stood on the right side of the coachman. While in Iliad. V, 580; VIII, 119 is the expression ἡνίο­χος θε­ράπων (servant), but the heroes themselves were the drivers; for example, Patroclus under Achilles (Iliad. XVI, 244) and others.

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An illustration of the Homeric chariot is the drawing on the attached table, in relief, which probably formed part of the frieze and was nailed, as shown by the hole near the hero's head; this image refers to the 6th or early 5th century BC. See also the chariot on the I-th table, from the painting on the vase.

Homer describes the chariot as follows (Iliad. V, 722):

The soldiers depicted on a very ancient vase found by Schliemann in Mycenae in a Cyclopean house, p. 31 south of the square, are very close to the Homeric soldiers. The painting on the vase is reproduced on the attached table, and on the second wall table one of the soldiers ( Ἀρχαῖος στρα­τιώ­της ) placed on a Mycenaean vase.

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The equipment of the soldiers in this painting is extremely original. Attention should be paid to helmets, spears, shields and the kind of leather leggings. It should also be noted that the soldiers' mustaches are shaved. Shaving a mustache is also confirmed by other monuments dating back to the most distant antiquity. Subsequently, this custom fell out of use. Behind the soldiers, marching in a slender march, there is a woman who, as can be concluded from the drawing, says goodbye to them and instructs them on the road.

Historical weapons.

The weapon of the historical epoch differed little in its essence from the Homeric one; there is only a striving to ease it and improve it. A heavy metal shield gives way to a lighter wooden one; copper on swords, spears, and arrows is replaced by iron, and the bronze of defensive weapons is replaced by leather, which was sometimes covered with a metal plaque.

In the later era of Homer's development of Greek weapons and the organization of the Greek army, the following historical events were to play an important role: the resettlement of the Doryans, the Greco-Persian wars, the clash of the Athenians with the northern tribes, internecine wars, especially the Peloponnesian War, the entry of Greek troops as mercenaries into foreign countries and, finally, the period of Macedonian rule, which was p. 32 the last stage in the history of the development of military affairs in Greece.

Defensive weapon. Ἀμυν­τή­ρια ὅπλα .

Helmet... There are 2 types of helmets: Corinthian and Attic.

Corinthian helmets, in turn, are presented in two forms. Some of them cover the whole face, others - only both cheeks. The example of the first type of Corinthian helmets is Κό­ρυς Κο­ριν­φία on the I-th table on the left side, along the marble bust of Pallas Athena. We find exactly the same images of the Corinthian helmet on Corinthian coins. An example of the second type of Corinthian helmets is Κό­ρυς Κο­ριν­φία on the right side on the I-th table, according to the painting on the vase; which dates back to the 5th century BC. and is now in the Louvre.

The Corinthian helmet is contrasted with the Attic helmet. Κόρυς Ἀττική is presented on the I-th table on the painting of Duris on the Attic vase from Caere (Caere, among the Greeks ῎Αγυλλα, one of the 12 Etruscan union cities). The mentioned vase is located in Vienna, in the Imperial Museum of Industry and Art.

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The table attached to the text shows a metal helmet, modeled on a Phrygian cap; it was found in 1865 in Bolshaya Bliznitsa on the Taman Peninsula. The overhangs - φάληρα of this helmet are movable, just as it happens in Attic helmets.

Carapace... - The shells were mainly of three types:

1. Θώραξ στάδιος, consisting of two solid metal plates, for the back and for the chest. It differs little p.33 from the ancient Homeric armor; there is only a striving for a more elegant finish, and likewise, to lengthen its lower part.

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An example of such a shell is the shell on the so-called. marathon warrior on the tombstone of Aristion by Aristocles. This monument belongs to the VI century. BC Chr. It is in the Athens Central Museum; see the attached table. (By the way, let us pay attention to the folds of the tunic protruding from under the carapace. This way of wearing the tunic was very widespread).

2. Θώ­ραξ λε­πιδω­τός - scaly shell. Actually it was a leather shell, to the surface of which metal plates were attached, usually in the form of scales (Herod. IX, 22). The scaled carapace on the I-th table is represented by painting on the aforementioned Viennese vase from Ceres.

3. Σπολάς - leather jacket mentioned by Xenophon (Anab. III, 3, 20; IV, 1, 18; a name that is often found in later writers). An illustration of such a shell can serve as its image on the I-th table, according to the bas-relief of the balustrade at the sanctuary of Athena in Pergamum.

4. The so-called linen shells were still in use - λι­νοῖ θώ­ρακες , mentioned by Xenophon (Anab. IV, 7, 15; I, 8, 9; Cyrop. VI, 4, 2) and Herodotus (II, 182; III, 47; etc.). They were made from twisted ropes and had sufficient density. However, these shells were in use in most cases by foreigners, Egyptians and Persians.

Shield... - Among the shields, the following types are distinguished:

1. Viotian, whose images are very often found on Theban coins. Its shape was p.34 oval; a feature of this shield is made up of the aforementioned cutouts on both sides; see ἀσπίς - σάκος on the I-th table, for painting on a vase.

2. The most widespread in the 5th and 4th centuries BC. was round, so-called. argolic shield. Several remnants of such weapons survived. So, in Olympia, seven bronze shields were found. Unfortunately, they were so thin that they soon crumbled. They looked like an ellipsis, the axes of which were 1 meter and 80 centimeters; the bulge protruded 1 to 2 centimeters above the rim circumference. These shields date back to the 5th century BC. One of them bore the inscription - Τἀργεῖοι ἀνέ­θεν indicating its place of origin. We find similar shields on the Pergamon bas-reliefs, but with a greater bulge and a wide rim.

The I-th table shows two parts of the argolic shield, external and internal. The first is based on the painting of Exekius on a vase depicting the fight between Achilles and Hector.

3. Distinguish a special type of shields, the so-called shield of the Amazons, which is mentioned by Xenophon (Anab. IV, 4, 16); it served as a model for the later peltast shield. Shield of the Amazons - Πέλ­τη Ἀμα­ζονι­κή presented on the I-th table, according to his image on the statue of the Amazon sculptor Polyclitus, kept in the Vatican; see also the shield at the peltast on the attached table. (based on painting on one of the Athenian vases).

4. The Macedonian shield was strongly convex and had a narrow rim all around. We find his images on the Pergamon bas-reliefs.

As for the material of the shields, they were usually wooden and covered on the inside with cowhide, and on the outside they were covered with metal and sometimes skin. It is known that the ancients very carefully took care of the purity and brilliance of weapons in general and shields in particular, as a result of which these latter were covered with covers; Wed Xen. Anab. I, 2, 16.

The outer side of the shield was usually decorated with carvings and paintings. In addition, there were well-known signs and letters on it, distinguishing both individual husbands and entire tribes; so, on the Messenian shields there was the letter Μ, on the Lacedaemon Λ, on the Sikion Σ, on the Theban shields a cudgel was depicted (Xen. Hell. VII, 5, 20), on the Athenian ones an owl was represented; Demosthenes bore the inscription Ἀγαθῇ τύχῃ on his shield (Plut. Demos. 20); on the shield of Alcibiades was the image of Eros (Plut. Alcib. 16). Quite often, on the shields, they depicted a dragon, a lion and the head of a medusa as symbols of fear, an eagle, as a symbol of victory, etc. The custom of decorating shields with signs was introduced by the first Carians. Herodotus (I, 171) speaks as follows about the merits of the Carians in this respect: “He (the Carian people) owns three inventions, which the Hellenes also used: the punishment taught how to decorate helmets with sultans, make signs on shields, and they were the first to make handles on shields; before that, everyone who used to use shields wore them without handles, holding them with leather straps, which were transferred to the neck and over the left shoulder. "

The crossbar through the middle of the shield in its inner part was called κανών, and the handles ὄχανα or κανόνες.

The shield was worn on the left hand, in which during the campaign they also held the end of a spear thrown over the shoulder.

According to Herodotus, the Greeks borrowed both the shield and the helmet from the Egyptians (IV, 180).

P.36 Leggings... - Leggings in the historical era were almost the same in appearance from Homer's. The leggings presented on the I-th table were found in the vicinity of Kerch. Iphicrates (at the beginning of the 4th century BC), instead of metal leggings, introduced a kind of boots that covered the leg to the knee and were named after him, ifikratids. (Corn. Nep. Iphic. I; Diod. Sic. XV, 44). The example of the latter is to some extent the shoes of the warriors on the aforementioned Mycenaean vase.

Arming hands... 1. Χείρ. “Since injury to the left hand renders the rider incapable of service, says Xenophon in one of his small writings (de re equestri XII, 5), we recommend an invented weapon, the so-called“ hand ”(χείρ), because it not only protects shoulder, elbow and the part holding the reins, but also stretches and bends and finally covers the gap between the shoulders and the shoulder. " An illustration of this weapon is the χείρ on the I-th table, depicting a similar oversleeve, which is in the museum in Bern.

2. The right hand of the riders is armed, as well as the left. Xenophon says this about it (de re equestri XII, 6-7): “The right hand must be raised for a dart or for a sword, and everything that interferes with it must be removed from the shell. Instead, hinges (πτέρυγες) are superimposed, which open when raising the hand and close when lowering. For the shoulder, in our opinion, it is better that the armor that is imposed in the kind of greaves than that which is associated with the shell, and the exposed part of the right hand should be covered at the shell with calf skin or a copper plate; or is left without any cover at all. "

p.37 The defensive weapon we have considered is by no means all the soldiers of the Greek troops in the historical era. Thus, the hoplites wore a shield, helmet, carapace and leggings; but the lightly armed or hymnets had no shield or carapace. Pausanias says about it this way: “ ὅσοι δὲ ἠπό­ρουν τούτων (carapace and shield) πε­ριεβέβ­ληντο αἰγῶν νά­κας (skins) καὶ προβάτων, οἱ δὲ καὶ θη­ρίων δέρ­μα­τα (fur) καὶ μά­λισ­τα οἱ ὀρει­νοὶ τῶν Ἀρκά­δων λύ­κων τε καὶ ἄρκτων »- (Περ. Τ. Ἑλ. IV, 11, 3). An illustration of this description is the drawing on the II-nd table, see γυμνήτης, ψιλός, on the painting on a vase dating back to the time of Pericles. Those soldiers who were deprived of a shield were protected by a chlamydah (χλαμύς) thrown over their left hand or an animal skin, as, for example, we see on the II-nd table, see γυμνήτης, defending a chlamydis, from a painting on a vase. This is how Alcibiades defended himself from his murderers. Plutarch. Alcib. XXXIX, 30: τῇ δ᾿ ἀρισ­τερᾷ χειρὶ τὴν ἑαυτοῦ χλα­μύδα πε­ριελί­ξας, τῇ δε­ξιᾷ σπα­σάμε­νος τὸ ἐγχει­ρίδιον ἐξέ­πεσεν .

Offensive weapon. - Βέ­λη .

Sword... Its types are as follows:

1. Ξίφος - straight sword; it differed little from Homer's sword, was double-edged and short, especially among the Lacedaemonians (Plut. Apophtheg. Lac. p. 217, E). Iphicrates introduced a longer sword for the Athenian peltasts. Wed ξίφος - φάσγανον - ἄορ on the I-th table.

2. Ἐγχειρίδιον - a kind of dagger. On the I-th table ἐγχειρίδιον depicts a bronze original found in the province of Parma.

3. Μάχαιρα - κοπίς - saber. Xenophon (de re equestri XII, 11) recommends it to horsemen instead of a straight sword p. 38: “to harm the enemy, we prefer a curved saber (μάχαιραν) rather than a straight sword (ξίφος), because for a rider from a high place, a saber strike ( κοπίς) is more convenient than a blow with a sword. " Μάχαιρα on the I-th table is depicted from painting on a vase (Vivenzio Vas.), Which is in a museum in Naples.

4. Ξυήλη - sickle saber. She was in special use among the Lacedaemonians. Ξυήλη on the I-th table is represented by a bas-relief from the city of Xanthus in Asia Minor (it depicts the Lycians, whose weapons we get acquainted with Herodotus (VII, 92). - Swords were made of bronze, copper, and later iron. The scabbard was made of wood , leather and metals.Sword handle and scabbard usually had rich ornaments.

A spear... There are three kinds of copies:

1. Δόρυ, λόγχη; it does not differ in appearance from Homer's. Its point is mostly flat, like the iron point from Dodona depicted on the 1st table. There were also three-sided and tetrahedral spear points.

The lower ends of the copies have also been preserved, for example, σαυρωτήρ on the I-th table, found at Olympia. The spears of the heavily armed were about 8 feet in length.

2. Ἄκων, ἀκόντιον - a dart for throwing. He was the weapon of the lightly armed. Each warrior had several darts. From Xenophon's Anabasis we learn that a belt (ἀγκύλη) was attached to the middle of the dart, the two ends of which were twisted around the shaft, and two fingers of the right hand were threaded into the remaining parts of the loop; the dart was held between the thumb and forefinger. Holding the darts in this way ( ἐναγ­κυ­λῶν­τες Xen. Anab. IV, 2, 28, διηγ­κυ­λωμέ­νοι IV, 3, 28; V, 2, 12), the soldiers threw them at the enemies, and the deployment of p. 39 of the loop told the dart a vertical direction, as a result of which the force of the blow increased. Xenophon mentions in Anab. IV, 2, 28, that the Greeks picked up arrows on the battlefield, tied belts to them and used them like darts. “The dart was about 5 feet long.

3. Σάρισσα - Macedonian peak. Its length was at first 24, and then 21 feet. For the Macedonian phalanx armed with these spears, see below.

Instead of a pike with a long shaft, which is neither strong nor comfortable, Xenophon advises the riders “two spears of thorns, one of which a skilled rider can throw, the other act directly, to the side and back. Besides, such a spear is stronger and more comfortable ”(de re equestri XII, 12).

Onion historical era did not differ from Homeric. See the image of the bow on the I-th table.

Of the shooters among the Greeks, the Cretans were especially famous (Thuc. VI, 25, 2; 43, 2), and among the Greek mercenaries - the Scythians and Parthians. However, in archery, the Greeks could not equal the Persians, which was attested by Xenophon (Anab. III, 3, 7 and 15). On the second wall table, we see a drawing representing an Amazon from a painting on a vase. This image is important for us in the sense that ancient monuments of art are presented in exactly the same costume of Asian shooters. On the left side (ibid.) There is a Scythian shooter, according to the painting on one of the Crimean vases. The features of his costume are: a hat, boots and pants (ἀναξυρίδες). The latter, as you know, were alien to the ancient Hellenes. Wed amazon costume.

p. 40 The offensive weapon of the Greeks in the historical era, among other weapons, was sling... The material for throwing was usually stones or lead bullets, on which there were often inscriptions like the following: Δέξαι, etc. The bullets were carried in bags called διφθέραι (Xen. Anab. V, 2, 12).

In addition to the slingers - σφενδονῆται - there were also the so-called. πετροβόλοι (Xen. Hell. II, 4, 12), who threw stones directly from their hands. The best of the slingers were considered the Rhodians (Thuc. VI, 43, 2), whose art is attested by Xenophon in the following words: “I heard that there are Rhodians in our army, of whom, they say, many can shoot with slings, and that their slings reach twice as far as the Persian slings: the latter do not reach far, because they shoot stones from them into the girth of the hand, while the Rhodians also know how to wield lead bullets ”(Xen. Anab. III, 4, 16, 17).

Although Herodotus in I, 59 mentions κορυνηφόροι - cudgels, bodyguards of Peisistratus, however, the use cudgels in the Greek army in the historical era was an exceptional phenomenon.

P.41

DEVICE OF THE GREEK TROOPS.

Heroic period.

Although at the beginning of Canto III of the Iliad, the Greeks who calmly and orderly go to battle are opposed by Trojans, who act like a herd of wild birds, the Greeks of the heroic era do not know military tactics in the proper sense of this word; in battle, the matter is most often decided by the personal courage and exploits of individual heroes. Homer's military hordes are called λαοί, and the leaders are called ποιμένες, ἥρωες. The latter, however, is often used by the poet when he speaks of the entire mass of soldiers, especially in addresses (Iliad. II, 110: ἥρωες Δαναοί; Odys. I, 101: ἀνδρῶν ἡρώων, etc.); ἥρως is also an honorary name (Odys. VIII, 483: ἥρῳ Δη­μοδό­κῳ - singer).

Historical period.

The soldiers who made up the contingent of the Greek troops in the historical era were mainly divided into heavily armed and lightly armed. The first p. 42 were called generally hoplites - ὁπλῖται, and in the Macedonian army phalangites - φαλαγγῖται. Spear throwers - ἀκοντισταί, arrows from a bow - τοξόται and slingers - σφενδονῆται are known under the common name of lightly armed - γυμνῆται, γυμνοί, ψιλοί. At a later time, finally, we also meet the so-called peltasts, who, in terms of their weapons, occupied the middle between hoplites and hymnets.

Since in Greece in the historical era there are mainly two states - Spartan and Athenian, developing in two different directions, the organization of the Hellenic army in this period of time should be considered separately among the Lacedaemonians and Athenians. Neighboring small Greek tribes developed mainly under the influence of one or another of the aforementioned Hellenic peoples, as a result of which there could not be a significant difference in the organization of their troops, compared with the organization of military affairs in Sparta and Athens.

Spartan state.

In the beginning, the entire Spartan army in the aggregate was called φρουρά - guard, garrison; later, however, this name belonged to that part of the people who were expelled for military action (Xen. Hell. II, 4, 29). Herodotus in I, 65 says that "Lycurgus organized military affairs, organizing squads (ἐνωμοτίας) united by oath, detachments of 30 people (τριηκάδας) and sissity (συσσίτια)." We do not have exact information about the number of these separate parts and their mutual relation.

p.43 The main force of the Spartan army was the ruling class, the citizens of the city of Sparta. They were divided into 5 communities (κῶμαι), each of which fielded one detachment (λόχος). Each sucker was ruled by a lohag (λοχαγός); besides which there were also polemarchs (πολέμαρχοι), as commanders of individual units of the Loch. (Her. VII, 173: Εὐαίνε­τος ὁ Κα­ρήνου ἐκ τῶν πο­λεμάρ­χων ἀραι­ρημέ­νος ). The number of soldiers in each sucker was about 1000; however, it depended on the number of members of the community and on the number of people required by the call, which in turn was conditioned by the decision of the ephors. The Spartans served military service between the ages of 20 (ἀφ᾿ ἥβης) to 60 years. All Spartans served as hoplites. Their armament consisted of: a copper shield, helmet and shell, first copper, and then replaced by a leather one with a breastplate, a long spear, a short sword and red clothing. Xenophon says the following about the color of his clothes: "To fight in arms, he (Lycurgus) invented red clothes and a copper shield on the grounds that these clothes have the least in common with women's clothes and are most suitable for war, because they are soon cleaned and not so dirty" ... See ὁπλίτης on the II-nd table, for the painting on the vase.

At first, the Spartans, in all likelihood, did not allow perieks into military service, but later the small number of full-fledged citizens forced them to use the help of perieks. Of the latter, in most cases, lightly armed were recruited - γυμνοί, ψιλοί. If the periecs served as hoplites, then although they were listed among the Spartiats' suckers, they were built separately from them. In the Plataean battle, there were 5,000 of them, that is, as many as the Spartans (Diod. Sic. XI, 4).

The helots did not form a separate detachment in the army, but during the war they accompanied the Spartiats and Periecs in p. 44 as servants (θεράποντες) and shield-bearers (ὑπασπισταί). However, in extreme cases, helots were used to replenish troops. In the Plataean battle, according to Herodotus: “five thousand Spartans had 35,000 lightly armed helots with them as squires, seven people for each Spartan” (IX, 28). In peacetime, helots were in the army as artisans (χειροτέχναι).

Thucydides says the following about the composition and number of the Lacedaemonian army during the Mantinean battle in 362 BC: “... using the following calculation, you can determine the number of Lacedaemonians who were then in the ranks: 7 suckers participated in the battle, not counting the Skirits, which there were 600 people; each sucker contained four pentecostia, and each pentecostia contained four enomotias. In the first row of each enomotic, four people fought, but not all suckers had the same number of ranks, since this depended on the discretion of each sucker; in general, they consisted of eight rows. Apart from the Skyrites, the entire length of the first line was 448 people ”(Thuc. V, 68).

The loss of many citizens due to the earthquake in 465 BC Chr. and the third Messenian War (464-454) caused the need to transform the Spartan army. Since then, the population capable of carrying weapons is divided into six pestilences (together with the periecs); each mora contained 4 suckers, 8 pentecostia (πεντηκοστύς) and 16 enomotias (ἐνωμοτία). Each mora had its own polemarch, 4 lohages, 8 Pentecostals and 16 enomotarchs. This information is given by Xenophon in Op. - De re publ. Laced. XI, 4.

The mentioned division of the army belongs to the 5th and the beginning of the 4th century BC.

p.45 The Spartans did not have cavalry in the true sense of the word. The first mention of the Spartan cavalry dates it back to 424. Namely, Thucydides says that “the Lacedaemonians contrary to usual sent a detachment of 400 cavalry and riflemen, alarmed by the grave misfortune that had happened on the island of Sfakteria, after the loss of Pylos and Kiefer, when the dangers of war were rapidly and unhindered approaching them from all sides "(IV, 55. Cf. Xen. Hell. IV, 5, 11 and de re publ. Laced. XI, 2). And later, when a morale of cavalry was attached to each sea of ​​infantry, under the command of a hipparmost (ἱππαρμοστής), the Lacedaemonian cavalry remained insignificant (Xen. Hell. VI, 4, 10: πο­νηρό­τατον ἦν τὸ ἱπ­πι­κόν ).

In the Lacedaemonian army there was also a detachment of Skirits of 600 people - σκι­ρί­της λό­χος (from Skirithida, northwestern region of Laconia). He “did not form in ranks with other detachments, but took a separate place beside the tsar and gave help to those who were in close proximity; composed of selected warriors, he was very important and for the most part decided the victory "(Diod. Sic. XV, 32). The Skyrites fought on the left wing (Thuc. V, 67). Their privileged position in the army is attested by Xenophon (de re publ. Laced. XII, 3; XIII, 6).

There was also a select detachment of 300 noble youths in the army as royal bodyguards; they were called ἱππεῖς, although they actually constituted the foot detachment; their chiefs were 3 hippagret (ἱππαγρέται, ἵππος-ἀγείρω). Herodotus in VIII, 124 mentions these horsemen: "after he (Themistocles) was exalted with many praises, on his way from Sparta three hundred selected Spartans, the very ones who are called horsemen, accompanied him to the Tegean border."

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Athenian state.

The only thing that can be said about the military affairs of the Athenians before Solon is that it was closely connected with the division of the people into phylae, phratries (trittia) and clans (γένη), which were later replaced by navcrarias. Solon, as you know, divided the people by property into 4 classes (τιμήματα, τέλη): 1) πεν­τα­κοσιομέ­διμ­νοι , 2) ἱππεῖς, 3) ζευγῖται, 4) θῆτες. The property division of citizens was closely related to their duties regarding military service. Citizens of the first two classes performed military service in the cavalry and heavily armed infantry. Zeugits served exclusively in hoplites, and thetes served in the lightly armed infantry and in the navy. The structure of military affairs was changed by Cleisthenes (in 510 BC), who divided the citizens into 10 Phil, 100 Demes and established 50 Navcrarians. According to this division, the infantry was divided into 10 regiments - τάξεις or φυλαί, and the cavalry into the same number of squadrons. Each infantry regiment consisted of 1,300 hoplites. Thucydides (II, 13) testifies that at the beginning of the Peloponnesian War, the Athenians had “13,000 heavily armed soldiers, not counting the garrisons and those 16,000 soldiers who were stationed along the (long) walls. This was the number of soldiers who guarded the city at the beginning when the enemy invaded; it consisted of citizens of the oldest and youngest ages, as well as of metecs who served in heavy weapons. " Each regiment was divided into suckers, and these last into tens (δεκάδες) and half tens (πεντάδες). The number of soldiers both in the sucker and in the regiment as a whole was not always the same; the sucker was about 100 people, sometimes more, p.47 and sometimes less. Members of the same phyla did not always serve in the same regiment, for example, Socrates and Alcibiades, who belonged to two different phylae, lived in the same tent during the siege of Potidea (Plat. Conv. 219).

In ancient times, the leader of the army was the king, then the archon; and when 9 archons began to be elected, one of them commanded the army - πολέμαρχος (since 683) After Cleisthenes, there were 10 strategists (στρατηγοί) appointed annually by election, who, during the war, commanded the army alternately. In the battle of Marathon, the archon polemarch stood at the head of 10 strategists and commanded over the right wing (Her. VI, 109, 111). Sometimes one of the strategists was entrusted with the main command in some war, or one was exclusively authorized for one or another expedition; then it was called αὐτοκράτωρ. The strategists were followed by taxiarchs (ταξίαρχοι), chiefs of individual regiments; behind them were the suckers (λοχαγοί), the centurions (ἑκατόνταρχοι), the foremen (δεκάδαρχοι) and the chiefs of the rearguard (οὐραγοί).

Every Athenian was obliged to serve in the army from 18 to 60 years of age; and the first two years were devoted to training in the art of war and service in the garrisons. These young warriors were called περίπολοι (Thuc. IV, 67). In exceptional cases, they were taken out of the state.

As for the cavalry, it is known that before Cleisthenes each navcrarius had two horsemen, therefore, all were 96 (according to the number of 48 navcrarians), and since the time of Cleisthenes the number of horsemen increased to 100 (according to the number of 50 navcrarias). However, there is no mention of the participation of the Athenian cavalry in hostilities either before the Persian Wars or in the marathon battle itself. At the time of Themistocles, the cavalry was already constant, and there were 300 horsemen p. 48, while under Pericles there were 1200 of them (Thuc. II, 13); this number should probably include 200 Scythian mounted riflemen in the Athenian service. The cavalry consisted of two regiments, 500 men each. The regiments were divided into hundreds, tens and half tens (Xen. Hipp. II, 2; IV, 9).

Since in the battle the horsemen were placed on both flanks of the battle formation, two commanders (ἵππαρχοι) commanded the cavalry. They, although they were subordinate to the strategists, or one of them ( ὁ ἐπὶ τῶν ἱπ­πέων ), however, were of great political importance. 10 Philarchs (φύλαρχοι) were subordinate to the Hipparchs.

Every year, a review of horsemen (δοκιμασία) was carried out, and only those of them who turned out to be capable of this kind of service were recorded in the lists for the next year; others were excluded and replaced by new ones (Xen. Hipp. I, 8; III, 6; VIII, 17, 18).

The riders received fodder money to support themselves, two horses and servants. Xenophon (Hipp. IV, 4) mentions the so-called. messengers (ἱππηρέται), who were appointed to carry out various orders of the commander-in-chief, for example, for reconnaissance of the area, finding a convenient path, etc. (Compare Cyrop. II, 21, 31; II, 4, 4; VI, 2, 13) ...

During the war, the cavalry served to cover the infantry from enemy riflemen and slingers. In peacetime, horsemen were used for military parades and in solemn processions. For example, on the famous Parthenon frieze, the procession is opened by horsemen.

p.49 The ordinary battle formation for the Athenians constituted a phalanx φάλαγξ, that is, a closely closed column, of approximately 8 rows; however, the length - μῆκος and width - βάθος of the phalanx were different. In the first row were the suckers - λοχαγοί, in the last row were the commanders of the rearguard - οὐραγοί. Since the time of Epaminondas, they became aware of the invented oblique battle order - λοξὴ φάλαγξ, called a wedge - ἔμβολον. To protect against enemy arrows, especially during the siege of cities, the so-called was used. turtle - χελώνη or συνασπισμός; it consisted in the fact that the soldiers in the front and side rows held shields in front of them, while the rest were above their heads, thus covering the entire formation.

Greek Mercenaries. Iphicrates.

While there was a strong sense of patriotism among the Greeks, and while they did not undertake distant military campaigns, the number of troops recruited from the citizens was quite sufficient. The need to recourse to the hiring of other people's hordes was at that time an exceptional phenomenon (the tyrants Pisistratus and Polycrates). But, when the military feeling weakened, and when the Greeks were forced to undertake more distant campaigns (the Athenians' campaign in Sicily), mercenaries appeared in the Greek troops. The epoch in the formation of Greek mercenary troops and in the development of military affairs in general is the hiring of 10,000 Greeks by Cyrus against Artaxerxes' brother, who, having made the famous retreat under the leadership of Xenophon, p. 50, again entered the service of the Spartan army sent by King Agisilaus against the Persian king. Very interesting details of the first large expedition of Greek mercenaries are known to the students from the work of Xenophon they read - Ἀνάβασις. Therefore, we will not dwell on them; we will only mention that from that time on, the hiring of foreign hordes receives, so to speak, the right of citizenship, and in Thessaly and Macedonia mercenaries are included in the permanent troops. By this time, the reforms of the Athenian commander Iphikrates, who improved military tactics and made up a regular army from the hired hordes, giving the peltasts the main role in it, dates back to this time.

Before Iphicrates peltasts rarely mentioned: they were of little importance in the army; for the first time Thucydides speaks of them (IV, 111), in the description of Brasis' campaign in Halkidiki. Wed Thuc. II, 29. Πέλται - is the name of an ancient flourishing city in the north of Phrygia (Xen. Anab. I, 2, 10). The name of the shield, πέλτη, indicates (for example, among the Amazons) the place of origin of this weapon.

Rice. 12

In Greece, peltasts were those who wore a light shield, whatever its shape; see the image of the peltast on the attached table, based on the Athenian painting on a vase. However, the name - peltasts - is sometimes found instead of lightly armed (Xen. Anab. I, 2, 9 cf. I, 3, 9). At first, the Peltasts were the Thracian mercenaries (Xen. Mem. III, 9, 2; Thuc. II, 29, 4). Herodotus describes the armament of the Thracian peltasts in the following words: “The Thracians had fox skins on their heads, chitons on their bodies, and long motley cloaks on top, and goatskin shoes on their legs and around their calves; they were armed with darts, light shields and short swords ”(VII, 75).

p.51 A similar armament of the Peltasts was transferred to the Greek army (Arr. Tact. 2, 9: τὸ πελ­ταστι­κὸν δὲ κου­φότε­ρον μὲν τυγ­χά­νει ὂν τοῦ ὁπλι­τικοῦ - ἡ γὰρ πέλ­τη σμικ­ρό­τερον τῆς ἀσπί­δος καὶ ἐλαφ­ρό­τερον , καὶ τὰ ἀκόν­τια τῶν δο­ράτων καὶ σα­ρισ­σῶν λει­πόμε­να - βα­ρύτε­ρον δὲ τοῦ ψι­λοῦ ). Cornelius Nepos tells the following about the transformation of the weapons of the Peltasts by Iphicrates: “He (Iphicrates) changed the infantry's weapons: since before his command, very large shields, short spears and short swords were used; he also introduced pelta instead of parma (which is why the infantrymen were called peltasts), so that the soldiers were lighter, dexterous in movements and skirmishes; doubled the length of the spear; lengthened swords; also changed the kind of shell and gave linen instead of iron and copper. As a result, he made the soldier more agile. Thus, by reducing the weight, he made sure that he was equally protective of the body and at the same time lightly ”(Corn. Nep. Iph. I). Diodorus also mentions the greaves introduced by Iphicrates, named after him by the Iphicratids (Diod. Sic. XV, 44).

Macedonian period.

We have already mentioned that the highest stage in the era of the development of military affairs in Greece was the Macedonian period. The Battle of Chaeronea showed the Greeks the weakness of their military organization, in comparison with the organization of the troops of Philip. From that time on, the military device created by Philip and perfected by Alexander gained predominance throughout Greece. Consider in general terms the composition of the Macedonian army of King Philip. According to Diodorus Siculus (XVI, 85), p. 52 consisted of 30,000 infantry and 3,000 cavalry. The foot army was divided into:

1. Phalangits - φαλαγγῖται; Their weapons were as follows: a leather armor - σπολάς - with a metal breastplate, a round shield, a folk hat - καυσία, leggings - ificratis, a short sword and a long spear - σάρισσα. Heavy infantry consisted of 6 phalanxes, regiments - φάλαγξ, τάξις, 4000 people each. in everyone. The phalanx was divided into 4 chiliarchies - χιλιαρχία, the chiliarchy split into 4 battalions - σύνταγμα, and the battalion was divided into 4 tetrarchies - τετραρχία.

2. Hypaspists - ὑπασπισταί; their weapons were: linen armor, light shield, ificratids, short spear, Macedonian national cap and long sword. They were assigned to active duty and were constantly ready for battle; the hypaspists were called the royal infantry squad - πεζέταιροι; their number was 6,000.

3. Shooters - τοξόται; they consisted mainly of mercenary Thracian hordes; there were 2000 of them.

The Macedonian cavalry, which was the subject of special care of Philip, was divided into heavy and light. It consisted of 15 squadrons - ἴλη (from 100 to 150 people in each). One of the cavalry squadrons constituted the king's squad and was called ἑταῖροι, ἄγημα.

The main foundation of the Macedonian system was the phalanx; it usually consisted of 16 rows. The soldiers standing in the first row held their 16 elbow spears - sarissa 10 cubits in front of them (holding the spear in front with their left hand, and with their right hand closer to the rear end). The sarissa of each of the next five rows protruded p.53 forward by 2 cubits less. The soldiers of the remaining 11 rows held sarissas over the shoulders of their comrades in an inclined position (Polyb. XXVIII, 12, 13). - Alexander the Great developed and improved even more the military tactics founded by Philip. His campaign against Persia was an era for Macedonian weapons and gave the king the opportunity to bring military affairs in Macedonia to the highest degree of perfection. - An excellent source for acquaintance with the Macedonian military tactics of Alexander is Arrian, the author, read in the grammar schools, to whose essay we refer the curious, content here with the most general instructions on the matter.

About the Greek camp will be said in the explanatory text to Table IV, about the fleet in the text to Table III, about military vehicles and the siege of cities see Table VIII and the text to it.

P. 52.

The image of the slinger is on the VII-th table.

The Scythians also constituted a kind of city police in Athens. See above, page 39.

The rider has a hat on his head - πέτασος with rectangular brims drooping down. With such a hat there was a strap with which it was attached under the chin or hung back when it was dropped; see ψιλός on the II-nd table.

The red cap was an insignia.

16 Greek cubits equals 24 feet see above page 39.

There were very few cavalry, since the inhabitants considered this type of troops insignificant. The main force was the infantry (hoplites). Their weapons consisted of a heavy shield, sword and long spear.

Greek hoplites: who are they?

It is no secret that the history of the Ancient World consists almost entirely of armed conflicts and violent wars. Each state strove to have its own combat-ready armies, and Greece was no exception. The bulk of its troops were hoplites - heavily armed foot soldiers. They first appeared in the army of Ancient Sparta. The Greek hoplites were essentially citizen soldiers and served for the benefit of the city-state in which they lived.

In those days, military service was the duty of every man. Therefore, any of the meetings of citizens inevitably turned into a gathering of either veterans who had already served their time, or soldiers who were still in the service at a given time. It turns out that every citizen of a free policy sooner or later became a hoplite.

It must be said that these heavily armed infantrymen, starting from the 7th century and over the next four centuries, dominated the battlefields. It is known that before the father of Tsar Philip II, hoplites were the basis of the classical phalanx.

In ancient Greece, the infantry was divided into several tactical units. The highest were the pestilences, then the suckers, who, in turn, were divided into smaller units. The chiefs who commanded the mora were called polemarchs, and the suckers were called lohags.

Armament

The Greek hoplites always carried Argive shields, or hoplons, with them. They were round and weighed over 8 kg. An interesting fact is that when fleeing, the first thing the soldiers did was throw their shields because of their exorbitant weight, so the loss of a hoplon was considered shameful for any hoplite. They were used not only to cover the body during the battle, but also as a stretcher on which wounded or dead comrades were placed.

Historians often associate the origin of the famous expression "with a shield or on a shield" with this particular Greek equipment. Most often, the hoplon consisted of a wooden base, which was upholstered on the outside with an iron or bronze sheet, and on the inside - covered with leather. It had comfortable handles where the warrior's hand was threaded. The main weapons of the hoplites were xyphos - straight short or mahair - curved swords with a reverse bend. In addition, they were also supposed to carry xistons - three-meter spears for throwing.

Weapon production

Initially, the state did not care about providing its soldiers with weapons and even passed a law according to which every Greek hoplite (5th century BC) was obliged to equip itself at its own expense, although full uniforms were not cheap (about 30 drachmas). This amount was comparable to the monthly income of a craftsman. Usually such expensive weapons were inherited.

By the way, its production in Ancient Greece flourished mainly in policies, and it was imported to small settlements from other places. At the time of Pericles, a fairly large workshop worked in Athens, where they were engaged in the manufacture of shields. Perhaps this was the largest production in ancient Greece. It employed about 120 slaves and a fairly large number of free citizens.

Initially, warriors wore Illyrian helmets, or pins, on their heads. They were made of bronze and decorated with a horsehair comb. They were in use from the 7th to the 6th century. BC e., until they were replaced by Corinthians. The new helmets were completely enclosed and only had openings for the mouth and eyes. Outside of battle, they were usually pushed to the back of the head. Later, Chalcis helmets appeared, which also left the ears open. In the II century. BC NS. The most popular were the Thracian ones - with a relatively small crest, complemented by figured cheek pads and a visor.

The warrior's torso in front and behind was protected by an anatomical cuirass - hippothorax. Most often, she weighed about 1 talent (about 34 kg), but some soldiers had armor and was twice as heavy. Over time, the hippothorax was gradually replaced by a lighter version, a linen carapace called linothorax.

Other parts of the body were also protected. So, the Greek hoplites were equipped with knimid leggings, as well as bracers, which were used until the very middle of the 5th century. BC NS. Proof of this fact is the numerous archaeological finds discovered by scientists on many amphoras and other household items, images where the Greek hoplite (a photo of a fragment of such a vessel is presented below) are often found fighting with weapons in their hands against another enemy.

Conversions in the army

In the VII-V centuries. BC NS. a reform was carried out to make the hoplite armor heavier. Most likely, such measures were taken in order to save the lives of the soldiers, since the Spartan army at that time consisted of only 8 pestilences, and this is a little more than 4 thousand soldiers.

However, starting from the middle of the 5th century. BC NS. the equipment of the Greek soldiers began to lighten: linen shells began to supplant anatomical cuirasses. The bracers have almost completely disappeared. The reason for this was a change in the formation of troops. It became denser and deeper, and the number of soldiers in the detachments doubled. Only the number of Spartan formations remained unchanged - 144 warriors in each. Due to changes in formation, chopping blows were applied less and less, so the soldiers' hands were not in danger of being severed. Now it was used more and more often, therefore, the spears were lengthened from 3 to 6 meters. So the Greek hoplites began to turn into sarissophores - foot soldiers who formed the basis of the phalanges.

Traditions

Usually the Spartans set out on a campaign on the full moon, and before that, their ruler always made a sacrifice so that they were lucky. Before the army, they always carried fire taken from Sparta, which was necessary to kindle fires now for marching sacrifices. In addition, they took with them an image with embracing Dioscuri. They personified the fraternal alliance of comrades in arms and were the ideals for the Spartan warriors.

The Greek army camp was almost always circular and well guarded by helots. I must say that during the campaigns the Spartans dressed very smartly. Instead of the usual cloak of rough cloth, they wore purple robes, and instead of a parka, they wore polished weapons. Entering the battle, the soldiers put on wreaths, as if going to some kind of holiday.

Army structure

The troops were not only Greek hoplites. Who are the peltasts and slingers who helped the Spartans in battle, you will learn further. Since the Greeks considered cavalry to be completely useless, horses were often used only to transport wealthy warriors to the battlefield. Therefore, in those days, in addition to heavy infantry (hoplites), there was also a light one, consisting of the poorest townspeople and slaves. The latter, despite their bondage existence, were quite reliable people, loyal to their masters.

Each hoplite always had his own slave who helped him put on his equipment. In battle, the slaves were slingers who carried with them cloth bags with several dozen clay or stone cores up to 40 cm in diameter. They also had a special belt loop equipped with a thickening. This was the sling. She was expertly spun over her head and then released. The core flew out and overtook the enemy with great speed, inflicting serious wounds on the open parts of the body.

Throwers

Light infantrymen armed with darts were called Peltasts. They were recruited from among the poorest townspeople called up to serve, who did not have the opportunity to acquire weapons and hoplite armor. It happened that some of them acquired such uniforms at the expense of the city.

The Peltasts threw their weapons at a distance of about 15 m. They did not need a large supply of darts, since they managed to use only a few in that short time, until the enemy came close. It must be said that a dart as a weapon was much more dangerous than an arrow, since, falling into the enemy's shield, it got stuck in it, interfering with any defensive manipulations.

Physical fitness and training

As you know, the Greek hoplites are militias who could hardly keep the formation while moving, and there was no question of hand-to-hand combat skills. Of course, one can assume that free citizens were engaged in some kind of physical exercise, however, there was neither the opportunity nor the strength to work constantly on improving their bodies, especially after reaching a more mature age, and even the peasants.

The Spartans are another matter. From childhood, each of them was taught the art of war. They knew how to fight properly, and they were justly proud of it. The Spartan hoplites not only knew how to keep the formation impeccably, in which they were helped by the flutists, but also competently waged hand-to-hand combat. They were almost the best warriors of the Ancient World.

300 Spartans

It is safe to say that the Greek hoplite played the main role in protecting their cities from enemy troops at that time. 480 BC NS. - this is the time when the huge army of the king of Persia Xerxes crossed the strait and invaded foreign territory. Greece was forced to defend itself. Her allied army consisted of detachments of hoplites sent from eleven cities, including Sparta. To prevent further advance of the enemy inland, the Greeks tried to block the narrow Thermopylae passage. For two days they managed to repulse the superior forces of the Persians, but the betrayal of one of the local residents, who led the enemy troops bypassing the defenders, did not give a single chance of victory. The entire Greek army retreated, except for three hundred Spartans and two more detachments - Thebans and Thespians, who, however, also surrendered in speed to the mercy of the enemy.

The Spartans knew that they would not win the battle, but law and honor did not allow them to retreat. Here, in Thermopylae, they defended their land - Opunta Locrida and Boeotia, through which the Persian army had to pass. The courageous hoplites did not retreat and perished in an unequal battle.

Time is inexorably running forward, but history has nevertheless preserved irrefutable evidence of the existence of the free city of Sparta and its brave warriors who defended their land from enemies. Their heroism is still admired by many people, and eminent directors make films about them. In addition, in almost any store that has a souvenir department, you will definitely find at least one rather realistic figurine of a Greek hoplite in an unusually beautiful outfit.

Military affairs were of great importance in Ancient Greece, which consisted of numerous small states, between which wars often arose. Greek city-states, based on the coasts of the Mediterranean and Black Seas, often coexisted with hostile local populations, which forced them to be on constant alert. Finally, the ancient state needed armed forces to keep the slave masses under control.

During the 1st millennium BC. NS. military affairs in ancient Greece underwent significant changes, inextricably linked with changes in socio-economic conditions.

In the IX-VII centuries. BC NS. with the emergence of the Greek city-states, a militia of full-fledged eligible citizens, who went on a campaign in heavy weapons (hoplites) and fought in a certain formation, called a phalanx, became armed force.

Thus, wealthy citizens who had sufficient funds to acquire rather expensive heavy weapons were mainly attracted to military service. It included defensive armor, consisting of a helmet, shell and greaves, a shield, two spears and a sword. The helmets were made of bronze and were of various types. In the VII-VI centuries. BC NS. usually they had a fixed visor that covered their face, small slits were left only so that the warrior could look and breathe. Later, helmets began to be used, leaving the front part of the face open, equipped only with cheek pads. Helmets were often decorated with crests with sultans. The carapace was a "bell-shaped" bronze cuirass reaching to the waist with the lower edges slightly bent outward. More improved was the carapace of bronze plates with specially worn shoulder pads; such a shell also reached the waist, but was often supplied with metal plates hanging down on leather tongues; without hindering the movements of the fighter, they protected the lower torso. The leggings covered the legs, they began at the ankle and ended slightly above the knee. Leggings were made of sheet bronze, their shape followed the outlines of the leg. The shields were round or oval in shape. They consisted of a wooden frame covered with leather. Over the skin, at the edges, the shield was bound with sheet metal. Often, the entire outer surface of it was sheathed with sheet bronze. Handles were attached to the inside.

Greek spears were up to two meters long, they were supplied with an iron point of a holly shape. Swords, also iron, were

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relatively short, pointed and double-edged, the blade gradually expanded from the end of the sword, reaching its greatest width by about the first third of its length; further, the blade narrowed noticeably and expanded again already to the very cross of the handle. Thus, the shape of the blade was a complex curved curve. The sword was equally suited to both thrusting and slashing attacks.

The hoplites fought in a phalanx - a close formation, in alignment lines that followed one after another at close distances. Each of the infantrymen had a certain place in the formation, which he could not leave.

The phalanx was usually eight rows deep. Sometimes a deeper construction was applied. The number of hoplites in each line was determined by the number of fighters exhibited by this or that policy. The length of the front of the phalanx was usually not particularly significant, for only the large Greek states could deploy several thousand soldiers on the battlefield, and especially more than 10,000 hoplites.

The tactics of the Greek phalanx were very primitive. This formation did not differ in mobility and was designed only for inflicting a frontal strike on the enemy. The phalanx acted as a single tactical whole; there was no division into separate columns that received independent tasks. The entire battle was carried out by the phalanx as one operation carried out by one unit.

The phalanx, which was crushing with a frontal blow, was very vulnerable when the enemy attacked its flanks, and especially from the rear. Unlike the infantry carré, it was designed only for battle from the front. Because of this, the issue of protecting the flanks of the phalanx was quite acute: the Greek commanders used lightly armed soldiers for this, and sometimes tried to use natural conditions. With a very rugged terrain among the mountains overgrown with forests, it was especially convenient to build an army, covering the flanks with inaccessible terrain.

The phalanx, ready for battle, lined up in the mind of the enemy, was supposed to approach him, strictly maintaining order. When a large number of fighters were moving in a deployed formation, when there were several hundred, and possibly more than a thousand, hoplites in each line, it was extremely difficult to maintain alignment in the ranks. Meanwhile, a violation of alignment could break the ranks and lead the entire phalanx into disorder, which would inevitably cause the defeat of the latter. Because of this, for the even movement of the fighters, choir singing and playing the flutes were used; giving the beat, they established an even pace of movement in the leg, which helped to maintain the correct rows. The use of military music and singing, in addition, helped to raise the mood of the soldiers.

So, moving towards one another, the phalanxes converged. At a distance of several tens of steps, both sides threw one of the spears at the enemy, and then went at each other. The outcome of the battle was decided by hand-to-hand combat, where spears and swords were used.

As we noted, qualified citizens were obliged to serve in heavily armed hoplites. The poor were recruited to serve as rowers and sailors in the navy or lightly armed

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with slings, bows or darts. As skirmishers, the lightly armed sometimes engaged in combat; firing at the enemy, they fled to the flanks when the hoplites launched an attack. Concentrating on the flanks, they could cover them in case of need. If the enemy turned to flight, then the lightly armed pursued him, for the heavy armor of the hoplites deprived them of the opportunity to escape for a long time. Among the lightly armed were archers, slingers, and javelin throwers.

In some Greek city-states there was cavalry, but for the most part it did not have much significance. The weapon of the riders was a sword and spears. Only Boeotia and Thessaly had good cavalry. It is very noteworthy that in Lacedaemon, riders were recruited from people not fit for service in the infantry.

Attic cavalry was used more in parades than in battles. Along with lightly armed cavalry, the cavalry served only for secondary tasks: it covered the flanks, pursued the overturned and put to flight enemy.

The described system of phalanx battle prevailed until about the beginning of the 4th century. BC NS. The system of manning the army during this time in Greece did not experience any special changes, due to which its composition did not change either. Military campaigns at this time were usually not long. The hoplite citizens who set out for them were distracted from their usual activities for the most part for only a few days. This was due to the entire system of organization of the army. Inten-

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Dante service or any centralized supply during this period did not yet exist. Each hoplite took a servant with him on the campaign, usually a slave, who carried after him his armor and food, taken! from home. Sometimes pack animals were used to transport this luggage. The rider was always accompanied by an equestrian servant with a spare horse. Due to this, the Greek army always marched accompanied by a huge crowd of carts, not inferior in number to soldiers. The provision of the troops with everything necessary was carried out on an individual basis, the supplies taken from the house were replenished only by individual purchase or by robbery on enemy territory. Long campaigns with such a supply system were impossible, which was reflected in the short duration of the Spartan campaigns to Attica in the last third of the 5th century. BC e, However, the special conditions in which military operations took place, especially the Athenian army, during the Peloponnesian War, could not but affect its supply system. Prolonged sieges by the Athenians of Potidea or Syracuse, associated with the long stay of the civilian militia in a foreign land, excluded any possibility of supplying them from home. The state had to take care of this. At the same time, people, for a number of years cut off from their farms, turned into professional soldiers. Mercenarism was especially developed in Greece in the 4th century. BC e., which was greatly facilitated by the economic and social conditions of that time: increased property inequality, impoverishment of the peasantry, etc.

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Mercenary armies of the 4th century BC NS. consisted of professional soldiers who received special education and training, and therefore were more capable of learning the skills of military service than the former civilian hoplite militias. Professional mercenaries were better at weapons, more capable of complex maneuvers and formations. During the IV century. BC NS. in Greece, the importance of those types of troops that previously did not play a large role is gradually increasing: lightly armed and cavalry. Of particular importance are the peltasts, which at that time were borrowed from Thrace. They had light armor, a small lunar shield - pelta (hence the name of the peltast), darts, a spear and a long sword. Attacking the hoplites, the peltasts walked in loose formation, threw javelins at the phalanx, and when the hoplites went into a counterattack, they could easily retreat, running back to a safe distance, because the heavy weight of the phalangists' weapons interfered with any successful pursuit. Carrying little damage and inflicting quite large losses on the hoplites, the peltasts could tire and disorganize the enemy phalanx, thereby preparing success for their phalanx, which fell on the disorganized enemy heavy infantry. For this kind of action, of course, a significant training of a fighter, initiative, the ability to navigate well in battle were required, which was not so necessary for a phalangist hoplite. The mercenary commanders of the new professional armies, taking into account the broader opportunities for the development of military affairs that opened up during the transition to professional armies, gradually improved their tactics.

The emergence of these new techniques is observed at the turn of the 5th and 4th centuries. BC NS. During the return of 10,000 Greek mercenaries from a campaign in Persia, they repeatedly had to engage in military clashes. Xenophon described one such episode. The hoplite mercenaries had to fight their way through the rugged terrain occupied by the enemy. The path was difficult to pass and it was impossible for the phalanx to move in a deployed formation. Due to this, the heavily armed were divided into small detachments - lochia - and built in separate, deep columns. Such detachments, moving at some intervals from one another, could make their way along impassable hollows and paths without having a united front line. Lightly armed, placed on the flanks, were supposed to cover the enemy army from the sides. The described operation was successfully carried out by mercenaries. Such operations during the Greek wars in Asia Minor contributed a lot to the development of the art of war. The conditions of the colonial wars prompted the Greeks to resort to methods unusual for the metropolis. In the future, the experience of border wars exerted a considerable influence on the military affairs of the mother country.

During the IV century. BC NS. new tactics are emerging. The old phalanx system, which was a single tactical unit, is being replaced by more complex formations. So, in the battle of Levtrakh, the Theban phalanx was lined up in an oblique formation so that the stronger left wing, which stood in a deep column (50 rows), dealt a crushing blow to its enemy before

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elephant, the weaker right wing came into combat contact with the enemies.

The further development of ancient military affairs is associated with the Macedonian army of Philip II and his son, Alexander the Great, which determined the main lines of military art in the subsequent Hellenistic era.

In the Macedonian army of the times of Philip and Alexander, the main role belonged to the heavily armed infantry and the heavily armed cavalry.

The Macedonian heavy infantry, like the Greek, fought in close formation. But, unlike the Greek phalanx, where all hoplites had exactly the same weaponry, the Macedonian phalanxists were equipped with spears of different lengths. The Macedonian phalangists, who were in the first rank, differed little in armament and, in particular, in the length of the spear from the previous hoplites. Length of copies of subsequent rows,

up to the fifth inclusive, gradually increased, and then it was equal to the length of the copies of the fifth row. The long spears of the Macedonian phalanx, possibly reaching 7 m, had to be held with both hands, due to which the phalangists carrying them did not have shields. When faced with such a formation, the enemy ran into a thick bristle of spears, which made the attack of the Macedonian phalanx much more crushing than the old Greek one. However, the strengthening of the frontal impact made the Macedonian phalanx even more vulnerable than the old, Greek, when the enemy attacked from the flank and completely defenseless if he appeared from the rear. After all, turning the front of the Macedonian phalanx, usually deeply built, with spears passed through narrow intervals between the infantrymen standing in close formation, was not an easy task and, moreover, required a lot of time.

In addition to heavy infantry, heavily armed cavalry was also widely used. The equipage of the riders consisted of a helmet, shell, long spear and sword. The shield was not always used. The main weapon was a long spear, the sword was of secondary importance.

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In addition to heavily armed infantry and cavalry, the Hellenistic armies also included: lightweight infantry (hypospists), peltasts, archers, slingers, and lightly armed cavalry with bows. Finally, during the Hellenistic period, elephanteria - war elephants - was also used. On the backs of the elephants there were special turrets, in which were placed mainly arrows, spear throwers, and often warriors with long spears. Elephants were ruled by special karnaks. sitting on the neck of animals.

The tactics of the Macedonian and Hellenistic armies were based on a system of coordinated actions of separate army units, each of which performed an independent task. Usually the center of the battle formation was occupied by the Macedonian phalanx, and heavily armed cavalry stood on one of the flanks. The decisive offensive was usually led by one of the flanks. The cavalry with a swift onslaught attacked the flank of the enemy army facing it and, having crushed it, deprived the center of the enemy army from the side cover. After that, the main forces of the enemy, attacked from the front by the phalanx and from the flank by cavalry, usually suffered defeat, which decided the outcome of the battle. Light infantry most often played a secondary role: starting battles and covering the flanks. War elephants, although they were used quite often, did not matter much. They successfully acted only against the cavalry, and then only because they frightened the horses with their appearance.

Greek cities and their kremlins - acropolis - were usually surrounded by walls with towers. Especially often, towers were erected near the gates, which are always the most vulnerable in the line of defense. Siege affairs in Greece before the IV century. BC NS. was relatively poorly developed. The besiegers sought to deprive the city of the supply of food. To force the fortifications, battering rams were used - logs bound at the end with metal, with which they knocked out the gates or broke holes in the walls. During the assault, they used siege ladders and machines.

Military vehicles began to come into widespread use from the 4th century. BC e., but they received special development during the Hellenistic period.

Attempts to improve the shooting business led to the emergence of the Gasterofet. Gasterofet was a tight bow with great fighting power with a stock and a mechanical device for pulling the bowstring. The named device allowed one person of average strength to pull the bowstring of the Gasterofet. The end of the slider sliding along the bed rested against the ground. Then, on the other end of the bed, which had a special bracket, the shooter piled with the whole weight of his body, due to which the bed succumbed downward. At the same time, the bow attached to the bed also moved down. As for the middle of the bowstring, it was motionlessly held by the motionless upper end of the slider, and thus the tight bow was pulled. A special hook kept the string taut. An arrow was placed in front of him, which, when lowered from the hook, sent forward with great force. Gasterofet represented co-

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the first attempt to mechanize throwing weapons. Further searches in this direction led to the appearance of much more bulky military vehicles such as artillery. The most important of these machines were the Monancomn, Palinton, and Eutiton.

Monancomne (called onager in Latin) consisted of a very strong horizontal frame, inside which a thick rope was tightly stretched, twisted from ox veins or hair - female or horse. A strong lever was inserted into this tourniquet, to the free end of which a sling with a stone was suspended. By means of special devices, the lever was gradually pulled down, and the twisted cord came into a tense state. Then, upon recoil, the released lever instantly straightened, and the stone in the sling was thrown out with great force and flew along a high trajectory for a considerable distance.

Polinton (Latin for ballista) was also used for throwing stones: he had a slightly more complex device than monancomn. Two strong vertical frames with thick twisted ropes stretched inside them were located on both sides of the fighting chute, which had a 45 ° slope. Strong levers were inserted into the bundles of twisted cords, the free ends of which were connected by a strong bowstring that went along the fighting chute. Using a special device, the bowstring was pulled, bending the levers and putting the harnesses in a tense state. Then, placing a throwing stone in front of the bowstring, they fired a shot, lowering the bowstring. The harnesses instantly returned to their original position, straightened the bowstring with great force and threw out a stone that flew following the direction of the battle chute. Thus, the palinton struck with an overhead fire.

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For shooting from monankons and palintons, specially carved spherical stones were used; they were of various calibers and weights, according to the size and strength of the projectiles for which they were intended. During the Hellenistic period, whole arsenals were set up to store such stones in case of a siege of the city. A similar arsenal was discovered by excavations on the acropolis of Pergamum, the capital of the small Hellenistic state of the same name.

Eutiton (Latin for catapult) was used for throwing darts. Its arrangement was close to Palinton; it also had two vertical frames with harnesses stretched inside them, into which levers were inserted, connected by a bowstring. The gutter located between these frames, however, was not inclined, but horizontally, due to which the eutiton struck with a flat fire, and not with a hinged one.

Among other throwing machines, the polybol should be mentioned. Polybolus was a eutiton, in which the pulling of the bowstring and the supply of the arrow and the shot were carried out automatically, by means of an endless chain, set in motion by the rotation of a special handle. Polybol is not particularly widely used. Apparently, this was due to the fact that it was a rather complex mechanism and often deteriorated. Throwing machines, due to their bulkiness, had extremely limited use in field warfare and were mainly used in the siege and defense of cities both by the besieging and by the besieged garrison.

Siege affairs developed significantly during the Hellenistic period. The besiegers, in addition to various throwing machines, used movable towers and other devices. For this purpose, the Hellenistic armies had special military engineering units, sometimes quite numerous.

According to Diodorus, Demetrius Poliorketus, besieging Rhodes, prepared a large number of siege structures: turtles (i.e., special

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shelters protected from projectiles) for earthworks, turtles with battering rams, as well as galleries through which it was possible to safely come and return from these works. Of the structures of Demetrius Poliorketus, helepolis was especially grandiose - a movable pyramidal tower on eight large wheels, bound with iron tires. The three sides facing the enemy were protected by iron sheathing, which protected the tower from incendiary shells. The tower had nine floors, each of which contained throwing machines. Two staircases served for communication between the floors: one for the ascent, the other for the descent, which eliminated the hustle and bustle. For the movement of Gelepola, 3400 people were allocated, distinguished by great strength. In total, about 30,000 people took part in the siege work, with a total number of Poliorket's army of 90,000 soldiers.

With the development of siege technology, defense technology developed. In this regard, of great interest is what happened at the end of the 3rd century. BC NS. the defense of Syracuse, led by the remarkable mechanic Archimedes. He built a large number of throwing machines of varying strength. Placed on the walls, they hit at different distances, shooting through the entire space in front of the city, according to the system of division into squares, like a chessboard.

The grandiose machine was built by Archimedes to protect the approaches to the city from the sea. The Romans, connecting in pairs their warships and installing special assault ladders on them, tried to approach the walls of Syracuse, which defended the city from the sea. In addition to firing at ships with various projectiles, Archimedes used a machine against them, similar to a very large rocker, from which a special metal paw hung on a chain, grabbing the nose of the enemy ship. The opposite end of the rocker, located inside the wall, dropped sharply downward, due to which the nose of the enemy ship, captured by the paw, rose up. After that paw and chain

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separated from the car, and the ship, falling, hit the water with force, often lying on its side, overturning or, deeply immersed in the sea, gained a lot of water and went out of order.

From an early time, a significant place in the armed forces of the Greek maritime states was occupied by the navy. In the great wars of the 5th century. BC NS. military operations at sea were almost as important as land battles.

In the Greek Navy, ships were divided into high-speed combat ships that were directly involved in naval battles, transport ships - for transporting troops, among which there were different ones that served for

deliveries of infantry and cavalry, and, finally, flipper ships for provisions and other supplies.

Warships in ancient times were boats with fifty oars - penteconters. Along each side of such a vessel, there were 25 rowers. In the V century. BC NS. triremes became the main warships. They are long and narrow ships with three rows of oars on each side. The number of rowers reached 170 people. There were significantly fewer sailors in charge of sailing gear (up to 30), as well as marines (12-18). The turns were controlled by the helmsman; Greek ships were driven by two wide oars located at the stern. Usually triremes went under sail, and when the wind was calm - on oars. During the battle, the sails were always removed and all maneuvers were carried out with oars.

The crew of the triremes was little designed for shooting or boarding combat. The main task in the battle was to ram and sink the enemy ship with a special metal tusk located on the bow of the ship. This required skillful maneuvering and speed. Particularly effective was the strike on the side of the enemy ship.

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Sometimes another technique was used, requiring great skill from the triremes team. Attacking the enemy, the trire passed along the side of the enemy ship. At the same time, the rowers removed their oars, and the side of the trimer broke the oars of the enemy ship. The loss of the oars of one of the sides paralyzed the movements of the enemy ship, because the transfer of half of the oars from one side to the other required a certain time due to the length and bulkiness of the oars. Even if this could be done, then the movements of the ship were slowed down by half. But more often the triremes, which successfully broke the oars of the enemy, turning back, immediately overtook the enemy ship and struck him with its ram.

In special cases, other techniques were sometimes used in naval warfare. So, during the siege of Syracuse, the Syracusans supplied their ships with very strong bows, adapted for head-on ramming of enemy ships, which provided them with an advantage over the Athenian fleet.

In the V century. BC NS. in the squadrons of the large Greek states there were a significant number of ships. So, in Athens, the number of ships reached four hundred.

In the IV century. BC NS. first, the Western Greeks have warships with four (tetrera) and five (pentre) rows of oars. Later, such ships began to be used by the Greeks in the metropolis.

In the Hellenistic period, the lighter mobile ships, characteristic of the previous time, were replaced by larger, but less maneuverable ships. These ships sometimes had five, and often more, rows of oars. Bulky ships, equipped with battering rams, had numerous crews with marines, as well as throwing devices. During this time, boarding fights are sometimes used. Sometimes, in battle, they set fire to the ships of opponents, using lighted baskets for this. With the introduction of giant ships, the quantitative composition of the fleets changes. The most powerful squadrons of large Hellenistic monarchies numbered only a few dozen ships.

And in a number of other states, which is a dense formation of soldiers, in several ranks. Only the first ranks take part directly in the battle (depending on the length of the copies used). The back ranks put physical and mental pressure on the front ranks to keep them from retreating. If it were not for this pressure, it would be advantageous to lengthen the front in order to cover the enemy's flanks, but at the same time a deeper phalanx would break through the opponent's weak center. Consequently, the phalanx is based on two opposite principles: depth, which gives power to the onslaught, and length, which makes it possible to reach. The commander made the decision about the depth of formation depending on the relative number of troops and on the nature of the terrain. A depth of 8 people is, apparently, the norm, but we also hear about a phalanx with a depth of 12 and even 25 people: in the battle of Sellasia, Antigonus Dawson successfully used a phalanx with a doubled depth of formation.

History

In the meaning of a tightly closed battle line, the word phalanx occurs already in the Iliad (VI, 6; XI, 90; XIX, 158), and the formation of the ranks was calculated so that the attackers could not break through them.

For the first time, the phalanx was used by the Argos under the command of King Phidon, who defeated the Spartans in 669 BC. NS. at the Gisia.

The phalanxes were composed according to peoples, tribes, clans or families, while the distribution of warriors inland was determined by their courage and strength. In the historical era, the phalanx as a form of building an army in battle is found in all Greek states until later; its essential features were the dense formation of rows and long spears. A strictly sustained type of phalanx existed among the Dorians, especially among the Spartans, for whom the entire strength of the army consisted in heavily armed infantry (hoplites); the army was divided into mora, suckers, pentecos and enomotias, but lined up in phalanx battle(Greek. έπί φάλαγγος ), consisting of a different number of rows.

• Macedonian (Hellenistic) - a long spear (sarissa) is held with two hands due to its weight, a small shield is attached to the elbow with a belt. The basis of the Macedonian phalanx was made up of sarissophores.

"Equestrian Phalanx" - sometimes encountered (non-scientific, equestrian warriors with spears of 1.5-2 meters, dressed in bronze armor), a descriptive name for the formation of the Getair of the times of Alexander the Great and his father Philip, as opposed to the later Getair.

Common misconceptions

The widespread theory that the spears in the phalanx were of different lengths - short in the first row and gradually lengthening to the last row, was in fact invented by armchair military theorists in the 19th century (this is how Johann von Nassau and Montecucoli understood Macedonian tactics) and refuted by archaeological finds. And even in theory, the system of spears of different lengths contradicts both the then principles of manning the army (which consisted mainly of the militia) and the principles of interchangeability of soldiers in the phalanx. Since a system with spears of different lengths requires a more or less constant army, and a warrior with a short spear in such a system cannot fully replace a warrior with a long one and vice versa. In a system with spears of constant length, in order to form a full-fledged phalanx, it is enough to require that each militia (or mercenary) appear with a spear of a standard length, after which it is enough to put those who have the best armor in the first row.

In defense of the truth of the theory about different lengths of spears in the Macedonian phalanx, it was said that it was impossible to use sarissa, the length of which reached 4-6 meters, by the warriors of the first row. The warrior allegedly could not hold such a weapon (albeit equipped with a counterweight) at one end and aim strikes with the other end, but would only block the view of the fighters in the back rows. However, there are many descriptions of the battles of the late Middle Ages, in which the battles of pikemen use long pikes (and without counterweights) against infantry, armed with similar weapons. In the work of G. Delbrück "The History of Military Art in the Framework of Political History", the hypothesis of spears of different lengths in the Macedonian phalanx is still shared, but the battle of the Gascons with the Landsknechts is described as follows:

“When the Gascons clashed with the Landsknechts in the same battle, Montluck says, the clash was so violent that the first line on both sides collapsed to the ground (tous ceux des premiers rangs, soit du choc ou des coups, furent, portés a terre). Of course, this should not be taken quite literally. But when it is further said that the second and third ranks won the victory, because the rear ones pushed them forward (car les derniers rangs les poussaient en avant), then such a description corresponds to everything that other sources convey about it. One must think that with such an onslaught from behind, when people are squeezed shoulder to shoulder, the people of the first ranks should pierce each other with their lances; This was partly the case, but since it was the first rows that wore strong armor, the peaks often broke, or rose with a point in the air, or slipped back from the hands of the soldiers, despite the notches that were on the shaft in order to hold them tighter. Finally, there was a crush, so that it was almost impossible to use the weapon. We do not encounter such a battle pattern in antiquity, for the later Macedonian phalanx did not have to fight a homogeneous enemy. "

Bibliography

• Rüstow und Köchly, "Geschichte des griechischen Kriegswesens" (Aapay, 1852);
• Droysen, "Heerwesen und Kriegführung der Griechen" (Freiburg, 1888, 1889, at 2 h. II volume Hermann's, "Lehrbuch der Griechischen Antiquitäten");
• Bauer, "Die Kriegsaltertümer" (1 part IV, volume "Handbuch der Klassischen Altertumswissenschaft" Iw. Müller'a, Munich, 1892);
• Hans Delbrück, "The History of Military Art in the Framework of Political History" (Moscow: Directmedia Publishing, 2005).

see also

• Ifphicratic Peltasts

similar constructions:

• Shiltron - formation of infantry in a circle bristling with spears
• Battle - building pikemen in a square, forming a "forest peak"
• Square - formation by a square, forming a "forest of bayonets", which does not allow the enemy to make a horse raid to the rear of the troops

useful links

• Roman Glory Antique Military

During the centuries-old existence of Ancient Greece, military affairs underwent significant changes. At the beginning of the first millennium, wars were constantly waged by individual tribes and tribal alliances with the aim of capturing various prey.

The army in the period under review was represented by the militia of the entire combat-ready male population. At the same time, at this time, from the general mass of ordinary members of the clan, the Basilei stand out - the clan aristocracy. This aristocracy, much richer than the ordinary members of the family, had the opportunity to acquire heavy, expensive weapons. It consisted of metal, mostly bronze, defensive weapons: a helmet, carapace, greaves and a shield, as well as an offensive weapon - two spears, a sword and sometimes a bow. Noble warriors fought standing on chariots - light two-wheeled carts harnessed by a pair or four horses; next to the chariot fighter was the charioteer driving the horses. The bulk of the soldiers fought on foot and were much worse armed; one must think they often had only leather armor.

There was no combat formation at all during this period. Naturally, the better armed noble warriors on chariots stood in front, and a crowd of worse armed fighters settled down with them.

The Basilees were starting the fight. At a short distance, they threw one of the spears at the opponents, and then, getting closer, fought hand-to-hand with another spear or sword. The outcome of the battle of well-armed noble warriors determined the outcome of the battle. After the defeat of the Basilean group, the poorly armed mass of ordinary soldiers could not withstand the victorious enemy. We see a completely different picture in Greece after the formation of a class society and the formation of numerous city-states. The armed forces of the polis state were the militias of slave-owning citizens. The Greek polises needed armed forces not only to fight external enemies with whom defensive or offensive wars were fought, but no less in order to keep in subjection the often large masses of the dependent population. This feature of the slave-owning states clearly manifests itself in the militarized system of Sparta, where the Spartans, who subjugated numerous helots, were in constant combat readiness.

The ancient Greek army was divided according to the types of weapons into heavily armed infantry (hoplites), light infantry and cavalry. The main striking force was the hoplites; they carried defensive weapons, which consisted of a helmet, carapace, greaves, and a shield, and offensive weapons, a short sword and two spears. The general nature of the armament of the Hellenic hoplite during the 7th-4th centuries. BC. virtually no change was experienced.

The carapace of the Greek hoplites was a solid bronze cuirass. In the early era, a "bell-shaped" shell was used, which consisted of two parts; it covered the warrior's chest and back. The leggings that protected the legs of the fighters started from the ankle and went slightly above the knees. Hoplite shields were of two types - round and Boeotian, which had an oval shape, complicated by semicircular cutouts on the sides. The shield had a wooden base, from the outside it was sheathed with leather or sheet metal.

The offensive weapon of the hoplites was a sword and two spears.

One of the spears was intended for throwing at the enemy at a short distance, the other for hand-to-hand combat. Spears with long sleeves and elongated leaf-shaped points. The sword was rather short, double-edged, with a gradually tapering, elongated point. The basic armament of the light infantry was ranged weapons - javelins, slings, bows and arrows.

At the beginning of the IV century. A special type of infantry - peltasts - was widely used; in addition to helmets, they wore leather or canvas nanziris, shoes that protected the lower part of the legs, and shields - pelts. Pelta - a small shield - originally had a lunar, later round shape. The peltases' offensive weapons were long swords, spears, and darts. The cavalry usually did not matter much and was not even in all the Greek states. Service in the cavalry was considered by the Greeks to be much safer than service in the hoplites, since the role of the cavalry was often limited to reconnaissance and pursuit of a defeated enemy.

Greek citizens were required to serve in the militia, usually from 18 to 60 years of age. Hellenic warriors, and especially hoplites who fought in heavy armor, required strength, endurance and preservation of combat capability until old age. This was facilitated by the widespread dissemination of physical culture among citizens of policies.

The weapons used by the Greeks, especially defensive weapons, were very different from the weapons of other ancient peoples. For its time, Greek weapons were at a high level.

In contrast to the indiscriminately militias of the period of the collapse of the primitive communal system, the troops of the Greek city-states fought in a strictly established battle order. The main force of the polis - the hoplites usually went into battle in a tightly closed line formation, called the Dorian phalanx. The phalanx was made up of rows of hoplites in a close formation, located one after the other. Usually the phalanx had several rows in depth; the distances between the rows were small, due to which the whole formation was very compact, although very elongated along the front. Usually there were several hundred people in the line. The main strength of the phalanx consisted in meeting the enemy with bristled spears in a close formation of infantrymen covered with shields and well protected by armor, each of whom was always in its place. This was the main difference between the phalanx and the disorderly crowd of fighters of the previous period. To maintain order in the flank, the hoplites had to keep pace, observing the alignment in the ranks and in the back of the head. Military music contributed to the regularity of the hoplite movement.

The phalanx has always acted as an undivided tactical unit, incapable of complex maneuvering. Its crushing power consisted of a simple frontal blow.

In the early era, in the armies of most metropolitan cities, the importance of other types of weapons - lightly armed and cavalry - was small. Playing an auxiliary role, they did not perform independent tactical tasks. Usually they only started a battle in order to retreat to the flanks and serve as their cover before the start of the attack of the hoplites. The system of organization and supply of the Hellenic army in the VIII-VI and to a large extent in the V century. BC. was pretty primitive. In the Hellenic policies, the command over the army belonged to colleges of strategists (generals), who were chosen from among the citizens. In the 7th-5th centuries. BC. the responsibilities of strategists were relatively simple. They led the army on a campaign, chose a place for a camp, determined the place and time of the battle. The situation changed at the end of the 5th and especially at the beginning of the 4th century. BC. In the last decades of the IV century. BC. during the long 27-year Peloponnesian war, civilian militias begin to receive pay, thereby turning into mercenary troops. Since that time, the matter of supplying the troops with everything necessary and, first of all, food, which is part of the responsibilities of strategists, has become more complicated. Changes in socio-economic conditions in Greece in the IV century. BC. - increasing property inequality and mass impoverishment of the peasantry - created favorable conditions for the emergence of large detachments of mercenaries, which were commanded by professional hired military leaders. Many of them became widely known, such as the commanders of the Athenian mercenaries Iphicrates and Khabri. Such mercenary troops are known in the 4th century. BC. from Syracuse and other tyrants of Magna Graecia. Mercenaries were also used by Clearchus at Hercules and the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus.

The development of the governorship contributed to the military training of fighters, which is important not so much for the hoplites as necessary for the peltases. From this time, lightly armed warriors, especially the peltases, become a great force in the troops of the metropolis.

The development of the military art of the Greeks in the IV century. BC. the wars that they had to wage with the Thracians, Persians, and other peoples of Asia Minor contributed a lot. The enrichment of the combat experience of the Greeks and the development of their tactics were facilitated by the widespread use of cavalry and lightly armed infantry by their opponents.

Finally, from the middle of the 4th century. BC. Macedonia becomes the leading force in the Balkan Peninsula. As we have already said, during the IV century. BC. in the armies of the metropolis, new tactics were developed. Separate units, acting according to a single plan, now began to carry out special tasks. Therefore, a characteristic feature of the new tactics was the unification of all genera into a single whole. The cavalry, as before, was located on the flanks, but the flanks themselves acquired a different meaning. They ceased to be the former passive cover for the infantry formation and turned into active forces of the army.

The constant military threat made it necessary to strengthen the ancient Greek cities. These settlements usually consisted of two parts: the lower city, mainly occupied by residential and industrial quarters, and the upper city - the acropolis, which served as a refuge for citizens of the polis in cases of extreme danger. The Acropolis, which occupied the top of a hill, often with steep slopes, was difficult for the enemy to reach by virtue of its location, not to mention the powerful walls and towers surrounding it. The walls around the Greek cities appeared somewhat later than the fortifications of their acropolis; in a number of cities they were built only in the 6th century. BC. The great importance of fortification for Greek urban planning caused the emergence of special theoretical works. Throwing machines, sometimes not quite aptly referred to as ancient artillery, were invented at the beginning of the 4th century. BC, but were especially widely used in the Hellenistic era. Such weapons were rather bulky and could not have a long range, which is why they turned out to be of little use for field warfare. Monancon (onager) consisted of a horizontal frame, inside which a bundle of twisted ropes of hair or veins was stretched. A strong lever was inserted into this bundle, usually in an upright position. A sling with a stone was suspended at the end of the lever. By means of special devices, the lever was pulled down, while the bundle of ropes was strained and, when recoil, straightened the lever with force. From a sharp jolt, the stone on the sling was thrown out and flew along a high trajectory for a fairly considerable distance.

First, the city was sieged with the use of military vehicles, then the besieging troops went on an attack. Battering rams or wall augers served as battering machines. To protect themselves from projectiles thrown from the walls of the city, the besiegers used "turtles" - wooden barracks sheathed with leather on wheels.

C IV century. BC. siege work began to improve and subsequently reached a considerable height. Then various siege towers became widespread - helepoly ("taking cities"). The most significant helepolis known to us were built by the military engineers of Alexander the Great Dyads and Kharius during the siege of Tire.

In parallel with the development of the siege business, the art of defense was improved. This is evidenced by the corresponding part of the extensive work written around the middle of the 4th century that has come down to us. BC. Aeneas the Tactician. The defense industry achieved significant development during the Hellenistic era. Polybius, who detailed the history of the Second Punic War, gave a vivid picture of the defense of Syracuse, which was led by one of the greatest scientists and mechanics of antiquity - Archimedes.

The need to transmit information as quickly as possible under military conditions caused the appearance of an optical telegraph, which Aeneas the Tactician worked on improving. Optical telegraph in ancient times was usually reduced to the use of signal lights. When sending dispatches in writing, various types of secret writing were widely used.

Many of the Hellenic policies were located on the seashore, and their economic life was closely connected with navigation. Therefore, in the armed forces of such policies, the navy often occupied no less place than the ground army. In ancient times, during the collapse of the primitive communal system and in the first centuries of the existence of policies, penteconters - large boats, along each side of which there were 25 rowers - served as military and pirate ships. The Athenian fleet consisted of such ships until the beginning of the Greco-Persian wars (490 BC). However, more than two centuries earlier, the most advanced coryphans at that time had much more improved warships - triremes. Usually triremes, going at full speed at the oars, sought to strike with a ram on the side of the enemy ship and sink the latter. The following method was also often used: the trimer, having accelerated, passed along the side of the enemy ship; at the same time, the oarsmen removed their oars in advance and the oars of the enemy ship broke against the side of the trimer.

Later, in the Hellenistic era, triremes were supplanted by penteres and ships with even more rows of oars. These colossal ships had numerous crews, which included the marines. Even stone-throwing machines were installed on such ships. However, along with these maneuvers, boarding combat was also widely used, for which the marines were intended.

The foregoing shows what a complex and varied picture was represented by the military affairs of the Greek metropolis, which underwent significant changes and improvements throughout its centuries-old existence. Considering the military affairs of the Northern Pontic states, we must constantly keep in mind the military art of the metropolis, which undoubtedly influenced the military affairs of the Black Sea region.